Verbs

A verb is a word that shows an action (doing), an event (happening) or the state of a person or thing.

Classification of verbs

> Modal auxiliary verbs and non-finite verbs have their own chapters. In this chapter we study finite verbs only. The classification is there only to make learning easier. Questions are never asked from the classification itself.

Finite or non-finite?

✔ Radhika likes to dance.
✔ We like to dance.

In these sentences like is a finite verb, because its form changes with the number of the subject (likes for Radhika, like for we) and with the tense (liked). But to dance does not change with the subject or the tense. It is a non-finite verb.

Non-finite verbs are also forms of verbs, but in a sentence they never work as the main verb. They work as nouns, adjectives and so on. So the test is simple. If a verb does the work of a verb, as a helping verb or a main verb, it is finite. If it has turned into a noun, an adjective or an adverb, it is non-finite.

• I play. Here play is the verb of the sentence, so it is finite.
• I want to play. Here to play is the object of want. It works as a noun, so it is non-finite.
• It is a waiting room. Here waiting only describes the noun room, so it is non-finite.
• A verb that comes after a preposition takes V1+ing and acts as a noun: She is fond of singing.

Helping verb and main verb

A verb that is used with another verb to express person, number, mood or tense is called a helping verb or auxiliary verb. Look at the film of the introduction again. A helping verb is the supporting actor: it appears only beside another verb. A main verb is the hero: it can stand alone.

✔ Radhika is playing. (is helps; playing is the main verb)
✔ Radhika is a doctor. (nothing else in the sentence is a verb, so is is the main verb)
✔ The students are silent. (silent is an adjective and cannot be the main verb, so are is the main verb)

Every clause needs a main verb, and one subject takes one finite verb phrase (verbs joined by and share the subject).

✘ Pushpa is knows all the facts. (use knows)
✘ They celebration the win. (a verb is missing; use celebrated)
✔ Pushpa knows all the facts.
✔ They celebrated the win.

A helping verb can stand alone when the main verb is understood: Yes, I have to (= have to explain).

Be, do and have are called the primary auxiliary verbs. When we use them as helping verbs, they help to express the tense. But each of them can also work as a main verb, so for every one of them we must ask: what is it doing in this sentence?

1. The verb *be*

Forms: is, am, are, was, were, been, being, to be.

As a helping verb, be is followed by V1+ing or V3.

This one point helps us the most in finding out whether a sentence is in the active voice or the passive voice.

✔ This book is helping me a lot. (is + V1+ing: active)
✔ This book is written beautifully. (is + V3: passive)

As a main verb, be is either a linking verb or an intransitive verb. As a linking verb it is followed by a complement (an adjective, a noun or a pronoun). As an intransitive verb it is followed by an adverb of place such as here or there.

✔ Radhika is a doctor. (linking verb + noun)
✔ Radhika is happy. (linking verb + adjective)
✔ Radhika is here. (intransitive verb + adverb)

From these two concepts it is clear that a be verb is never followed by V1 or V2. So in the exam, if V1 or V2 stands after be, we can mark it as an error at once.

✘ They were went to school. (use were going)

2. The verb *do*

Forms: do, does, did, done, doing, to do.

As a helping verb (do / does / did) it is always followed by V1. It is used to make questions and negatives, and for emphasis.

✘ He did not returned home. (use return)
✘ She doesn't plays the piano. (use play)
✘ Did Radhika went to school? (use go)
✔ Radhika does not play the piano.

As a main verb, do is followed by an object (a noun or a pronoun).

Sub + (helping verb) + do + object

✔ I do my duty every day.
✔ Radhika is doing her homework.

Doing and done are always main verbs. Do, does, did can be either.

[[say:radhika| In "I do my duty every day", is do a helping verb?]]

[[say:sir| No. No other verb stands beside it, and my duty comes straight after it as its object. So do is the hero here, the main verb. It becomes a helper only when another main verb is in the sentence, as in "I do believe you".]]

3. The verb *have*

Forms: have, has, had, having, to have.

As a helping verb, have / has / had is always followed by V3.

Sub + have / has / had + V3

✔ Radhika has eaten her lunch.
✔ They had left before I came.

As a main verb, have / has / had is followed by a noun or a pronoun.

Sub + have / has / had + noun / pronoun

Students often get confused when they see more than one form of have together. A few examples remove the confusion.

✔ Radhika has a car. (Present Indefinite: has is the main verb, it means possesses)
✔ Radhika has eaten lunch. (Present Perfect: has is the helper, eaten is the main verb)
✔ Radhika had had lunch before I reached. (Past Perfect: the first had is the helper, the second had is the main verb and means eaten)
✔ Radhika has been selected. (has helps, been is part of the passive, selected is the main verb)

The main verb have has more than one meaning: possession (I have a car), relation (I have a sister), experience (I had fun there), eating, taking or bathing (He is having a shower), and difficulty (He is having trouble).

Expressions with *have*

• Have a swim / a walk / a ride / a dance / a game of tennis
• Have breakfast / lunch / supper / dinner / tea / coffee / a drink / a meal
• Have a bath / a wash / a shave / a shower
• Have a rest / a lie-down / a sleep / a dream
• Have a look / a try / a go
• Have a good time / a bad day / a nice evening / a day off / a holiday
• Have a good journey / flight / trip
• Have a talk / a chat / a word with somebody / a conversation / a disagreement / a row / a quarrel / a fight
• Have difficulty / trouble (in) doing something
• Have an accident / an operation / a nervous breakdown
• Have a baby (= give birth)

> If an adjective comes with these words, the article a / an can be used: have a light breakfast, have a heavy dinner.

✔ She is having a baby. (she is giving birth)
✘ He is having a baby.
✔ He has a baby. (he possesses a baby, that is, he is a father)

> When have shows possession or works as a stative verb, it is not written in the continuous form.

Some verbs describe an action (run, write, eat). Others describe a state (know, own, resemble). A state is not something we do; it simply is. That is why a verb of state is not used in the continuous form. These are the stative verbs.

✘ My brother is resembling my mother.
✔ My brother resembles my mother.

✘ Ramesh is owning a beautiful house.
✔ Ramesh owns a beautiful house.

The main groups are these.

This is the same idea that was met in the section on have: when have shows possession it avoids the continuous.

✔ Radhika has a car. ✘ Radhika is having a car.

One verb, two meanings. Many of these verbs also have an action meaning. In that meaning they can be used in the continuous. The test is whether we can see the verb being done.

> Always read the verb as a state first. He looks tired tells us how he seems. He is looking at the picture tells us what he does.

The same concept holds for the perfect continuous: been knowing and has been owning are wrong in the same way.

✘ Had he been knowing about the changes, he would not have gone ahead.
✔ Had he known about the changes, he would not have gone ahead.

Every verb has the forms V1, V2, V3, V1+ing and V5 (the s / es form). Regular verbs are easy: V2 and V3 are V1 + ed. The irregular verbs are the ones the examiner tests, and we learn them in groups so that one pattern covers many verbs.

✔ go – went – gone – going – goes
✔ study – studied – studied – studying – studies

> The verbs below are the ones the examiner often tests. The long list of regular -ed verbs is in the Concept Book at the end of the chapter.

Group 1: V1 = i, V2 = a, V3 = u

Group 2: V2 = V3

> Same family: swing – swung – swung, sting – stung – stung.

Group 3: V2 = V3 (words that end in -t)

> Lose follows this group too: lose – lost – lost. Losed is not a word.

Group 4: V2 ≠ V3 (the V3 usually ends in -n)

Group 5: V1 = V2 = V3

> Read is spelt the same in all three forms, but V1 is pronounced "reed" and V2 and V3 are pronounced "red". Proofread follows the same pattern.

✔ The match was broadcast all over the country. (not broadcasted)
✔ She hit the nail with a hammer.
✔ The mistake has cost him dearly. (not costed)

These verbs are asked often, because a student who adds -ed out of habit makes an error. Quit and wed are also written quitted and wedded in some books, but the exam form is quit and wed.

Group 6: V1 = V3, V2 is different

Group 7: V2 = V3 (the -ed words)

Most verbs in English belong here: V2 and V3 are V1 + ed, with small spelling changes (cry – cried, travel – travelled, fulfil – fulfilled, practise – practised). The full list is in the Concept Book.

Group 8: confusing verb forms

Verbs with similar looking forms, such as fall and fell, lie and lay, hang and hanged, are explained in the next three sections.

Which form where?

✘ He runned a long distance. → ✔ He ran a long distance.
✘ She has went home. → ✔ She has gone home.
✘ I seen him yesterday. → ✔ I saw him yesterday.
✘ The cup was broke. → ✔ The cup was broken.

Remember: with no helping verb, a finished past action takes V2. After has / have / had and after be in the passive we need V3.

A verb that is followed by an object (a noun or a pronoun) is transitive. A verb that is not followed by an object is intransitive. The name tells the story: trans means across. In a transitive verb the action passes across from the doer (the subject) to the thing it affects (the object).

How to find the object. Ask what? or whom? after the verb. If a noun or pronoun comes as the answer, that is the object. If there is no answer, the verb is intransitive.

[[parse: S=Radhika | V=reads | O=a novel]]
[[parse: S=Radhika | V=sleeps | A=in the afternoon]]

✔ I threw the marker. (what? the marker: transitive)
✔ I wrote an essay. (transitive)
✔ I wrote about an incident. (about follows, so this is intransitive)
✔ I shot the bird. (the action reaches the bird)
✔ I shot at the bird. (I only aimed; at marks the change)
✔ I knocked at the door. (intransitive)

Go is never transitive: movement cannot pass across to another object. Verbs of movement and place (go, come, arrive, fall, rise) are usually intransitive.

1. The passive belongs only to transitive verbs. The passive needs an object to become the subject, so an intransitive verb has no passive.

✘ Ravan was died in the battle. (use was killed or died)
✘ He will be arrived at the airport. (use will arrive)
✘ New ideas were being emerged. (use emerged)
✘ The accident was happened yesterday. (use happened)

Other verbs that do not have a passive: happen, occur, appear, seem, arrive, emerge, die, sleep, go, come.

2. A transitive verb must have an object. If nothing follows it, the sentence is incomplete.

✘ Reduced price of gas brought happy to every citizen. (an object is needed: happiness)
✘ We enjoyed at the party. (enjoy needs an object: the party, or ourselves)
✔ We enjoyed ourselves at the party.

3. Ergative verbs can be transitive in one meaning and intransitive in another. They show both doing and happening.

With an ergative verb we do not need the passive unless the sentence clearly describes something done to the subject by someone. The book sells quickly is correct as it stands. Malaria is spread by mosquitoes is passive because the doer is named with by. Malaria spreads fast has no doer, so there is no passive.

4. Action or state? A passive is used when the subject is acted upon by someone else. The paper was cut into pieces is passive, because the paper does not cut itself. But The branch was laden with mangoes describes a state, not an action done by somebody. It is not a passive at all. Compare The cart was loaded, where a person did the loading.

A transitive verb takes its object directly. So putting a preposition or an adverb between a transitive verb and its object is wrong. This is one of the most common ways the examiner builds an error: he takes a transitive verb and slips in a preposition that sounds natural.

The verbs in the table below are all transitive. Next to each verb is the preposition that students wrongly add after it. Learn the list well.

✘ He ordered for the pizza. (drop for)
✘ He reached to the meeting early. (drop to)
✘ He demanded for more money. (drop for)
✘ They were discussing about our problems. (drop about)
✘ I have qualified in the prelims of the UPSC. (drop in)
✔ I have qualified for the mains.

Two checks make the list safer. First, the preposition is wrong only when it stands between the verb and its object. A few of these verbs do take a preposition in another meaning or pattern: enter into is right for an agreement or a fight, and qualify for is right when it means become eligible for. Join in a game and trust in God are also right, because they are different patterns. Second, in an exam sentence the plain verb with its object is the safe form.

When the same word is a noun, the preposition is allowed. The verb is transitive, but the noun is not, so the noun takes the preposition.

✘ He attacked on me. (drop on)
✔ It was an attack on me.

The verb marry. No preposition is used with marry in the active voice. In the passive, to is always used.

✔ Ram married Sita.
✔ Ram was married to Sita.
✘ Ram married with Sita.

Related forms that students mix up. Comprise takes no of: this test comprises grammar and vocabulary. If of is wanted, use consist of. Resemble takes no with or to: she resembles her mother. Tell takes the person directly: tell your mother, not tell to your mother. (Say needs to: say it to your mother.)

Transitive verbs are of three kinds, depending on what comes after the verb.

Three small terms help us here.

• Direct object is a noun or a pronoun, the answer to what? (something, written sth).
• Indirect object is a noun or a pronoun, the answer to whom? (somebody, written sb).
• Complement is a noun, a pronoun or an adjective that describes the object.

(a) Mono-transitive verbs. These take one object after them. Almost all the transitive verbs we have seen so far are mono-transitive.

(b) Di-transitive verbs. These take two objects: an indirect object (somebody) and a direct object (something). Verbs: give, teach, ask, read, send, hand, grant, lend, pass, bring, tell, buy, make, build, bake, save, do, cook, find, order, get, offer, show, promise.

Structure: Sub + verb + indirect object (sb) + direct object (sth)

[[parse: S=Prashant | V=gifted | IO=Radhika | O=a beautiful dress]]

✔ Prashant gifted Radhika a beautiful dress.
✔ Dhruv sent her a book.
✔ The old man built his children a tree house.
✔ Abhishek made Akash a pizza.

If the direct object (sth) is written first, then to or for is placed before the indirect object (sb).

✔ Prashant gifted a beautiful dress to Radhika.
✔ Dhruv sent a book to her.
✔ The old man built a tree house for his children.
✔ I always read a story for her.

When is it to and when for? When the receiver is direct, the person who actually gets the thing, to comes. When the person benefits in a less direct way, because the work is done for his sake, for comes.

✘ Most hotels offer for their guests a complimentary breakfast. (no for when the person comes first: offer their guests breakfast)

> Tell is di-transitive, so the person follows it at once: tell me the truth. Say is not di-transitive. It cannot take a person directly, and it needs to: say the truth to me.

✘ She said me the truth. (use told me)
✔ She told me the truth.

(c) Complex transitive verbs. These take an object and, after the object, a complement that describes that object.

[[parse: S=They | V=named | O=her | C=Radhika]]

✔ They named her Radhika.
✔ The class teacher appointed me monitor.
✔ We selected him leader.
✔ I consider him my brother.

The verbs are: name, make, elect, consider, think, call, nominate, declare. With complex transitive verbs, putting as after the object is wrong. Appoint, select and choose allow as as well (appointed her coordinator or appointed her as coordinator).

Structure: verb + object + as (✘) + noun / pronoun

✘ He called me as a liar. (drop as)
✘ He made me as their leader. (drop as)
✘ He can call as his own. (use call his own)

On the other side stand verbs that are not complex transitive and that use as: portray, depict, mention, regard, describe, know, define, treat, view.

Structure: verb + object + as (✔) + noun / pronoun

✘ They regard me their son.
✔ They regard me as their son.
✔ The witness described the suspect as tall.

See how the two lists work. Both sentences below mean the same, but one verb needs as and the other cannot take it.

✔ They consider me their son. (complex transitive verb, no as)
✔ They regard me as their son. (not complex transitive, as is required)

So we must remember both lists. Consider him as my brother is wrong; regard him as my brother is right.

A linking verb joins the subject of the sentence to its complement. The test is simple: subject = complement.

[[parse: S=She | V=became | C=a doctor]]
[[parse: S=She | V=called | O=a doctor]]

In the first sentence a doctor tells us something about she. She and the doctor are the same person, so a doctor is a complement and became is a linking verb. In the second sentence a doctor is somebody else. She and the doctor are different persons, so a doctor is an object and called is a transitive verb. So it is the verb that decides whether the subject is joined to a complement or a new object is brought in.

Linking verbs: be, seem, appear, feel, grow, get, become, look, sound, smell, taste, stay, turn, remain, keep, go, come.

They fall into two groups.

1. Linking verbs are not used in the passive. They have no object, just like intransitive verbs.

✘ She was appeared surprised. (use appeared)
✘ It was seemed that he would die. (use seemed)
✔ The magician appeared on the stage.

2. Some linking verbs are also transitive in another meaning. Then they take an object and can be passive.

3. After a linking verb we use an adjective, not an adverb. An adverb can follow only when the verb is used as a transitive verb.

✘ He looked angrily.
✔ He looked angry.
✔ He looked angrily at the boy.
✘ She looked worriedly.
✔ She looked worried.

[[say:radhika| "He looked angrily at the boy" is correct, but "He looked angrily" is wrong. Why?]]

[[say:sir| In "He looked angry", looked means seemed. It is a linking verb, so it needs an adjective. In "He looked angrily at the boy", looked at is an action, a transitive use, and the adverb tells us how he did that action. Linking verb, adjective. Action verb, adverb.]]

4. Seem and appear. They are followed by an adjective, or by to be + adjective. But if the adjective begins with the prefix a-, such as asleep, alive, alone, awake, then to be is the usual and safer form after seem and appear. He seemed asleep also occurs, but in SSC exams choose the to be version.

✔ He seemed very nervous.
✔ He seemed to be very nervous.
✔ He seemed asleep. (also occurs; in SSC exams choose the to be version)
✔ He seemed to be asleep.
✔ She appeared to be asleep.

5. Verbs of change. The verb must match the kind of change.

• Grow / get: a gradual change. He grew old. It's getting dark. He is getting older (not He is older, because the change is going on).
• Turn: a sudden change. His hair turned grey. The milk turned sour.
• Go: a sudden or undesirable change, and a change in behaviour. He went blind. The milk went bad. He went mad.
• Come: performance or result. He came good.

Phrases with go: go deaf / blind / bald; go bad / off / mouldy (food); go dead (telephone); go missing.

6. The pronoun after be. The formal pattern is the subject case. It is me is normal in speech and is not an error in everyday English; in SSC exams prefer the subject case.

✘ It is me. (in SSC exams prefer I)
✘ If I were him, I would beat you. (in SSC exams prefer he)
✔ It is I who topped the exam.

Causative verbs express the idea of one person getting some work done by another person. Compare:

✔ I broke the marker. (I did it myself)
✔ I made Rajat break the marker. (Rajat did it, because of me)

The three causative verbs are make, have and get. Each has an active pattern (the object does the work) and a passive pattern (the work is done to the object).

1. Make

• Make (to get done) + object + V1 → active causative
• Be + made + to + V1 → passive causative
• Make (to create) + object + to + V1 → purpose infinitive (this is not causative)

✔ The defender made the team cry.
✔ Radhika made her sister do her work.
✔ I can't make him understand.
✔ The boy was made to work hard. (passive: to comes back)
✔ Radhika made a request to join the club. (here made means created, and to join tells the purpose)

✘ She made him crying. (use cry)
✘ The doctor made the patient to stay in bed for a long time. (use stay)
✘ Radhika made her sister to do her work. (use do)
✘ Radhika made a request join the club. (use to join)

2. Get

• Get + object + to + V1 → active causative
• Get + object + V3 → passive causative

✘ She cannot get her child go to bed. (use get her child to go)
✘ I must get my car to wash before her birthday. (use get my car washed)

The car cannot wash itself. It is acted on, so the passive causative with V3 is needed: get my car washed.

3. Have

• Have + object + V1 → active causative (someone else does it)
• Have + object + V3 → passive causative (the object is affected)

✘ They had everyone to fill out the form. (use had everyone fill)
✘ She had her mother prepared a dress for her. (use had her mother prepare)
✔ I had my car washed and had my brother take it home.

The second part of the last sentence is active, because the brother does the work (take). The first part is passive, because the car is acted on (washed).

Summary

Both have and get are allowed in the passive causative, but get is the one to prefer.

Let. Let works like make and have: let + object + V1.

✔ Let us pray.
✔ If you need any help tomorrow, let me know.
✘ Let him knows. (use let him know)

> After make, have and let the next verb is the bare infinitive, that is V1 without to. Only get keeps to.

Some verbs come in pairs of twins. They look alike, they sound alike, but one twin is intransitive (no object) and the other is transitive (has an object). The examiner puts one in place of the other. The cure is always the same.

> Is there an object after the verb? If yes, use the transitive twin. If no, use the intransitive twin. And if the sentence is passive (be + V3, or a *by*-phrase), only the transitive twin can be used.

Look at the pattern. The intransitive twins have a V2 of their own and a V3 that ends in -n (rose, risen; fell, fallen; arose, arisen; lay, lain; the exception is sit: sat, sat). The transitive twins take -ed (raised, felled, aroused, laid).

1. Fall and fell

[[parse: S=The girl | V=fell | P=on the floor]]

✘ The girl felled on the floor. (no object; use fell, the V2 of fall)
✘ The Olympic champion fell his opponent with a single blow. (his opponent is the object; use felled, the V2 of the transitive fell)
✔ The stock market continued to fall.
✔ The Olympic champion felled his opponent in the final bout.

2. Rise and raise

✘ The student rose his hand. (the object his hand is there; use raised)
✘ The student raised from the seat. (no object, only a preposition; use rose)
✘ The flag is risen by the Prime Minister. (by tells us the verb is passive, and only a transitive verb can be passive; use raised)
✔ The river has risen by several metres. (by several metres tells us how much, it is not an object)
✔ Interest rates are expected to rise.

Watch two more neighbours: a ray is a noun (a ray of hope), and raze is a verb that means to destroy (they wanted to raze the old town).

3. Arise and arouse

✘ A disagreement aroused in the family. (no object; use arose)
✘ His behaviour arose my suspicions. (object my suspicions; use aroused)
✔ A new set of problems has arisen.
✔ The whole community was aroused by the crime.

4. Lie and lay. This is the pair that confuses most. There are three verbs here.

✘ You should lay down. (no object; use lie, the lying-down verb)
✘ He lay the baby down. (the object the baby; use laid)
✘ She has laid there all night. (no object; use lain)
✘ She was laying on the beach. (no object; use lying)
✘ She was laying about having a college degree. (no object, and the sense is of telling an untruth; use lying)
✔ Radhika laid the bag aside and lay on the bed.
✔ The book lay open on the table.
✔ The cat was lying on the rug in front of the fireplace.

5. Sit and set

✔ The mother asked the children to sit down quietly. (sit has no object)
✔ Radhika set the books on the table. (set has the object the books)

In the last section the twins differed by an object. Here the verbs look alike for a different reason: one form of verb A is spelled exactly like a form of verb B, or two meanings of one verb have two different V2 and V3. Read each pair with its meaning, and the sentence will show which one is needed.

1. Hang and hanged. Hung is for things that are suspended, such as a picture or clothes. Hanged is used only when a person is put to death by hanging.

✘ They hung him for his crimes. (use hanged)
✘ They hanged their heads in shame. (use hung)
✘ He was sentenced to be hung till death. (use hanged)
✘ The judge ordered the prisoner to hung till death. (use to be hanged)
✔ The thief was hanged for his crimes.
✔ The judge ordered the prisoner to be hanged till death.

2. Find and found. Find is to discover or get (find, found, found). Found is to set up an institution (found, founded, founded). The meaning decides the V2 and V3.

✔ It is difficult to find the truth.
✘ Abhishek and Pawan have found a multinational company. (use founded)
✘ LIC was found on 1 September 1956. (use founded)

3. Bear. Born is used only in the sense of birth, and it stands with be. Borne is used for carrying or putting up with, and it takes by in the passive.

✘ She was borne into a rich family. (use born)
✘ The disease is born by mosquitoes. (use borne)
✔ Many great people were born in that small village.

4. Sow, saw and see

✘ The farmers sawn the seeds in the field. (use sowed)
✘ He saw the tree into pieces. (use sawed)
✔ Tomatoes sown around July are harvested in October.

5. Fly and flow

✘ I've never flow in an aeroplane. (use flown)
✘ Air flown through the ventilation ducts. (use flows)
✔ Some passengers were flown to Paris. (passengers carried by plane: the transitive fly)

6. Leave and live

✘ A viral illness live her barely able to walk. (use left)
✘ They leave around the corner. (use live)

7. Strike and stroke

✘ The workers are set to stroke over pay on Tuesday. (use strike)
✘ They strike the soft fur on the dog's back. (use stroke)

8. Wind and wound

✔ She wound a scarf around her neck.
✔ He was wounded on the battlefield.

9. Grind and ground

✘ She grind all the spices in the jar. (use ground)
✘ The coffee is grinded to a fine powder. (use ground)

10. Rend and rent

✘ The psycho rented his shirt in anger. (use rent, from rend)
✘ Priya rend her house to a romantic couple. (use rented)

This last unit collects the pairs that the examiner often sets because the two words look or sound alike, while the meanings are far apart. Read each pair as a small story and the choice becomes easy.

Affect and effect. Affect is a verb and means to influence. Effect is mainly a noun and means result. As a verb, effect means to bring about (effect a change). So The sudden change of place affected her health is right, and effected her health is wrong.

Hear and listen. Hear is to receive a sound without trying; it takes no preposition. Listen is to hear with attention and it always takes to.
✔ I cannot hear what she is saying.
✘ I cannot listen what she is saying. (use hear, or listen to)
✔ During the earthquake people heard a strange noise.

Deny and refuse. Deny means to say that one did not do something, so it looks back and takes V-ing. Refuse means to decline to do something, so it looks forward and takes to + V1.
✔ She denied helping him when he asked for money.
✔ She refused to help him when he asked for money.

Verb and noun spellings. Many pairs differ by one letter, and the noun and the verb are not the same word.

> I follow British English in this book: practice is the noun and practise is the verb.

V3 as an adjective and V3 in the passive. A V3 that describes a state is an adjective, and some verbs have a special adjective form. A V3 that shows an action done by someone is a passive verb.

✘ The labourers handled melted iron. (use molten iron)
✔ The branch was laden with mangoes. (a state)
✔ The cart was loaded by the porters. (an action, passive)
✔ He was so drunk that he could not recognise Radhika.
✔ All the milk had been drunk before the officers reached the venue.

Drunken comes before a noun (a drunken man). Drunk comes after a linking verb with no noun after it. Before a person noun, drunk is accepted in informal English.

Verbs that work both ways. Stop, fly, start and turn can be intransitive or transitive with the same form.

• I stopped. / I stopped the car.
• The bird is flying. / I am flying a kite.
• I started. / I started a business.
• I turned. / I turned the key.

Find the verb in the noun. Some words are both noun and verb with no change: Radhika answered the call, please call me. The place in the sentence shows which one it is.