Non-Finite Verbs

An infinitive is the form to + V1. It does the work of a noun, an adjective or an adverb. In this unit we see it as a noun and as an adverb of purpose.

1. As a noun. An infinitive can be the subject, the object or the complement of a sentence.

✔ To play for India was his dream. (subject)
✔ Radhika wants to become a doctor. (object of wants)
✔ Her aim is to become a teacher. (complement of is)

2. As an adverb of purpose. In many sentences the infinitive gives the purpose, that is, the answer to why. Then it works as an adverb.

✔ I went there to meet Radhika. (Why did I go? To meet her.)
✔ The soldiers sacrifice their lives to guard the nation.
✔ He switched on the TV to listen to the speech.

3. It still behaves like a verb. Because the infinitive is a form of a verb, it can take its own object or adverb after it.

✔ She came here to help her friend. (her friend is the object of to help)
✔ They hired a maid to clean the house. (the house is the object of to clean)
✔ We want to complete this task tomorrow. (tomorrow belongs to complete)

4. An infinitive is never the object of a preposition. After a preposition, a noun or a gerund comes, never to + V1.

✔ I am going for a walk.
✘ I am going for to walk. (use for a walk or for walking)
✘ He is fond of to sing. (use of singing)

For the purpose of an action, for + V1 is also wrong. Use to + V1.

✘ The government should do more for create jobs. (use to create)

5. The introductory it. We usually do not like to begin a sentence with an infinitive. The subject it is put first and the infinitive is moved to the end. An infinitive can be the subject, but this is the better and preferred way.

✔ To play for India was his dream.
✔ It was his dream to play for India. (better and preferable)

> An infinitive is the answer to why. After to only V1 comes: not to guarding, not to made, not to sold. This one point breaks a large number of error-spotting questions.

An infinitive can also do an adjective's work. It comes after a noun and tells us more about it. It also comes after many adjectives.

1. Noun + to + V1. A house to rent means a house that is to be rented. The noun before the infinitive is usually the object of the verb that follows.

✔ I have a house to rent. (we can say rent a house)
✔ I need a pizza to eat. (we can say eat a pizza)
✔ She has the ability to laugh at herself.

2. Check whether the verb needs a preposition. If the noun cannot be the direct object of the verb, the preposition must come back after the verb. Test it by turning the phrase round.

✘ I need a house to live. (we cannot say I live a house)
✔ I need a house to live in. (I live in a house)
✘ I need a friend to eat. (we cannot say eat a friend)
✔ I need a friend to eat with. (eat with a friend)

> I need a knife to cut vegetables sounds fine in casual talk. The exam-safe form is I need a knife to cut vegetables with. Where the sense would otherwise turn round, as in a knife to cut, the preposition is a must.

[[parse: S=I | V=need | O=a friend | A=to eat with]]

3. Adjective + to + V1. Many adjectives are followed by an infinitive, because what comes next is a future or intended action.

✔ We will be ready to leave for the airport in an hour.
✔ I am not afraid to speak the truth.
✔ I was unable to complete the task satisfactorily.
✔ It is advisable to put your car into neutral gear at a signal.
✔ None of the boys was willing to admit the mistake.
✔ It was delightful to hear the baby's voice.

Adjectives that take to + V1: ready, eager, willing, afraid, unable, able, sorry, glad, happy, foolish, advisable, necessary, essential, imperative, easy, difficult, important.

4. The preposition and the infinitive do not go together. If an adjective takes a preposition, a gerund follows that preposition. If it takes to + V1, no preposition is added in front of the infinitive.

✘ It is imperative in understanding the rising importance of digital skills. (use to understand)
✘ They will be ready leaving for the airport. (use to leave)
✔ He is interested in learning English. (the adjective interested takes in)

The infinitive has more than one form. The form tells us the time of the action compared with the main verb, and the voice.

Simple or perfect? When the action is finished before the main verb, or happened in the past, we use the perfect infinitive instead of the simple one.

✔ He seems to work hard for the exams, as the exams are near. (the exam is still to come)
✔ He seems to have worked hard for the exam, as he has scored well. (the exam is over)

Continuous or perfect continuous? For an action in progress, use the continuous infinitive. For an action that has been going on from some earlier point up to now, use the perfect continuous infinitive.

✔ He seems to be working hard these days. (these days shows progress)
✔ He seems to have been working all night. (all night shows how long it has been going on)

Active or passive? Every infinitive has a subject reference, the noun or pronoun that does the action. It can be the subject of the sentence or its object. When the subject reference is not the doer, but receives the action, we use the passive infinitive.

✔ Radhika wants to help the poor. (Radhika is the doer)
✔ The poor want to be helped. (the poor receive the help)
✔ This work needs to be done. (the doer is not mentioned)
✘ You should read the newspaper to be update with current affairs. (use to be updated)

Repeating the verb. If the verb of the infinitive has already been written, we do not repeat it. Only to is written.

✘ My parents encourage me to study but I don't want.
✔ My parents encourage me to study but I don't want to.
✔ My parents encourage me to study but I don't want to do so.

Negative infinitive. The negative word always stands before to, never between to and the verb.

→ not + to + V1
→ not + to be + V3
→ not + to have + V3
→ not + to have been + V3
→ not + to be + V1+ing
→ not + to have been + V1+ing

✘ She tried to not hurt him.
✔ She tried not to hurt him.
✘ The teacher advised the children to not go near the lake.
✔ The teacher advised the children not to go near the lake.
✘ I request you to not to crack jokes. (two to is also wrong)
✔ I request you not to crack jokes.

Split infinitive. To + V1 is the full infinitive. When an adverb is put between to and V1 (to + adverb + V1), it is called a split infinitive. The usual advice is simple: when a split infinitive appears, try to avoid it. Place the adverb in this order:

1. If the adverb can go after the verb or after the object, put it there.
✘ She wanted to intentionally disturb me.
✔ She wanted to disturb me intentionally. (preferable)
✔ He decided to check the file carefully.
✔ She tried to answer politely.

2. Split it only when the meaning becomes clearer and the sentence sounds better.
✔ He decided to gradually reduce his expenses.
✔ She wanted to really help the poor.
✔ The company plans to more than double its profits. (more than cannot be put after double)

3. The meaning must not become doubtful. She decided gradually to reduce her expenses can be read as "she took the decision gradually". Write She decided to reduce her expenses gradually.

4. A negative adverb (not, never) never comes between to and V1.
✘ He decided to not reduce his expenses.
✔ He decided not to reduce his expenses.
✘ She promised to not repeat the mistake.
✔ She promised not to repeat the mistake.
✘ Krishna advises to never indulge in worldly pleasures.
✔ Krishna advises never to indulge in worldly pleasures.

> Modern informal English accepts to never complain. For the exam: if the split with never is the only fault, mark it. If another part of the sentence is wrong, ignore the split and mark the other error.

When the infinitive is written with only V1 and without to, it is called a bare infinitive. Its use is limited to some fixed places. Learn those places, and the rest follows.

1. After let, bid, make, have and help.

Structure: let / bid / make / have + object (somebody) + V1 (help has its own pattern, see below)

✘ Let him to go.
✔ Let him go.
✔ Let him complete his work.
✘ Let she do her work. (use her, because the object form is needed)
✘ She makes him crying. (use cry)
✔ Varsha makes her child do his homework before dinner.
✔ The doctor often makes his patients wait for long.
✔ She has let herself go after her divorce. (not let herself be gone)

Help is special. Four structures are correct with it:

✔ Radhika helps her husband to do his work.
✔ Radhika helps her husband do his work.
✔ Radhika helps her husband in doing his work.
✔ Radhika helps her husband with his work. (with + noun)

2. Just after why. After why, we use a bare infinitive.

✔ Why waste time if you can study?
✘ Why standing up if you can sit down? (use stand)

3. After and, or, but, than, as, except. When two infinitives are joined by one of these words, the second infinitive has no to. It is a bare infinitive.

✔ I would like to lie down and sleep.
✔ We had nothing to do except look at the sea.
✔ She would rather read than watch TV.

> But and except can also be used as prepositions. Then an *-ing* form follows: She is good at everything but singing, She is good at everything except singing. But if the verb do is in the sentence, but takes a bare infinitive: ✔ We had nothing to do but look at the sea. ✘ We had nothing to do but looking at the sea.

4. In the passive, to comes back. Make, see, hear and help take a bare infinitive in the active voice. When they are changed to the passive, the to returns before the verb.

Active: make / see / hear / help + object + V1
Passive: be + made / seen / heard / helped + to + V1

✔ They made him rewrite the report. → He was made to rewrite the report.
✔ I saw him cross the road. → He was seen to cross the road.
✔ We heard her sing softly. → She was heard to sing softly.
✘ He was made rewrite the report. (use to rewrite)

> Let has no passive of this kind. We use allow instead: He was allowed to go.

5. After had better and would rather. A bare infinitive always follows them. The negative not comes after them.

✔ You had better start early.
✘ You had better to start early.
✔ I would rather stay at home.
✔ We had better not leave before it gets dark.
✔ She would rather read than watch TV.

A gerund is the V1 + ing form that always works as a noun. That is why it is also called a verbal noun. It can be a subject, an object, a complement or the object of a preposition.

✔ Swimming is a good exercise. (subject)
✔ I like swimming. (object of like)
✔ Her hobby is swimming. (complement)
✔ He is good at swimming. (object of the preposition at)

In all these sentences swimming is a gerund.

It still behaves like a verb. A gerund is a form of a verb, so an object or an adverb can follow it.

✔ Radhika likes reading novels. (novels is the object of reading)
✔ Swimming in the sea early in the morning is great fun.
✔ Carrying an umbrella is not at all a good idea during thunderstorms.

A gerund used as a subject is singular, so the verb after it is singular.

✘ Word by word reading lead to another bad habit. (use leads)
✔ Knowing the things that motivate each person helps you add power to their motivation.
✔ Being polite and courteous will greatly improve your chances of making friends.

> A subject cannot be a bare V1 or a preposition phrase. Be polite and by being polite cannot start the sentence as a subject. A gerund can.

Usage of the gerund

1. Determiners before a gerund. The, this and possessive determiners (my, your, his, her, their) can stand before a gerund.

When the or this comes before a gerund, the gerund becomes a pure noun, so no object can follow it directly. We take the object with of.

✔ The smoking of the cigarette.
✘ The smoking cigarette.
✔ The opening of the restaurant.
✘ The opening restaurant.
✘ He specialises in the treating rare diseases. (use in treating rare diseases, or in the treatment of rare diseases)

2. A possessive or an apostrophe before a gerund. We can put a possessive determiner (my, your, his) or a noun with an apostrophe (Ram's, Sagar's) before a gerund. But if it is already clear from the sentence who does the action, we should not add them.

✘ Thank you for your helping me.
✔ Thank you for helping me.
✘ I appreciated Ram for his waiting for me.
✔ I appreciated Ram's waiting for me.

SSC often puts an object-case pronoun where the possessive should be.

✘ We can't forget them sacrificing everything for the country. (use their)
✘ Excuse me interrupting you. (use my)
✘ He was surprised at me refusing his offer. (use my)
✔ I found his talking disturbing.

3. After a preposition. The object of a preposition is a noun or a gerund. When the object is an action, it is a gerund.

✔ He is interested in learning English.
✔ The teacher stressed the importance of using correct grammar.
✔ The goons fled after killing a boy.
✔ I take pride in serving my country.
✔ She has checked everything before starting work.
✘ I like reading stories besides write poems. (use besides writing)
✘ The goons fled after kill a boy. (use after killing)

> Stative verbs are not used in the continuous tense. But when the same verb works as a gerund or a participle, the *-ing* form is allowed: ✔ I like knowing the truth. ✔ Having a car makes life easy.

4. Forms of the gerund.

More possessive examples. In formal English the possessive comes before the gerund. In object to, the word to is a preposition, so a gerund follows it.

✔ I appreciate your helping me.
✔ They objected to my coming late.
✘ They objected to me coming late. (choose my coming when both are offered)

Some phrases are followed by a gerund every time. Learn them as blocks. The examiner often changes the gerund into an infinitive, or changes the phrase slightly, to make the error.

[[chips: look forward to | be used to | object to | addicted to | devoted to]]

1. Phrases in which to is a preposition. In these phrases to is a fixed preposition, not the to of an infinitive. After a preposition, a gerund comes.

be used to, habituated to, accustomed to, with a view to, look forward to, in addition to, devoted to, dedicated to, object to, objection to, given to, taken to, addicted to, averse to, prone to, owing to, due to, adhere to, conducive to, indifferent to, preferable to, get around to

✘ I am looking forward to meet you soon. (use meeting)
✘ That was a good conversation. I look forward to meet you. (use meeting)
✘ He had no objection to forward my application. (use forwarding)
✘ Radhika is dedicated to help the poor. (use helping)
✘ I am used to work late. (use working)
✘ I am accustomed to stay away. (use staying)
✘ People have become indifferent to the suffer of others. (use suffering)
✔ I prefer walking to driving.

> Be used to + gerund means "to be accustomed to": I am used to waking up early. Do not mix it up with used to + V1, which shows a past habit: I used to wake up early. A simple test: if to can be followed by a noun (I am used to the noise), it is a preposition and a gerund will follow.

2. Expressions followed by V1 + ing.

✘ It is no use to read about it. (use reading)
✘ There is no point to call her now. (use in calling)
✘ I have no problem to solve these questions. (use solving)
✔ I have some difficulty (in) solving these questions. (in is not compulsory; difficulty to solve is the error)
✘ We mustn't waste our time in playing computer games. (drop in: waste our time playing)
✘ Is it any use to expect Sagar to be on time? (use expecting)
✘ If a thing is worth doing at all, it is worth done well. (use worth doing)
✘ We decided to spend our time play online games. (use playing)

Be careful with the preposition. There is no point in keeps in. Difficulty may take in, but it is not compulsory (difficulty in solving and difficulty solving are both correct); after spend time and waste time it is better left out.

3. Gerund in compound nouns. When a gerund joins a noun, it usually tells the purpose of that noun.

A frying pan = a pan for frying
A changing room = a room for changing
A racing car = a car for racing
A waiting room = a room for waiting
A punching bag = a bag for punching

Others: living room, baking powder, answering machine, meeting place, working party, nursing home.

4. Go + V1 + ing. Go is used for going to take part in an activity or a sport. Two structures are formed.

Go + for + a + noun = Go + V1 + ing

✔ Go for a walk = Go walking
✔ Go for a swim = Go swimming
✔ Go for a jog = Go jogging
✔ Go for a drive = Go driving

Both structures cannot be used in every case. We say go fishing, go skiing, go shopping, and go for a drink, go for a ride.

5. Verbs followed by -ing with a passive meaning. After some verbs, an *-ing* form comes, but the meaning is passive. The same idea can also be written with to be + V3.

✘ The car needs to washing.
✔ The car needs washing.
✔ The car needs to be washed.

Many students learn two long lists, one for the infinitive and one for the gerund, and then forget half of them in the exam. There is a simpler way: ask when the second action happens compared with the first.

[[chips: hope | plan | decide | promise | refuse | manage | afford | agree]]

• The second action comes after the main verb, as a future or an intended action: infinitive (to + V1).
• The second action goes on at the same time as the main verb, or is already in progress, or has been completed: gerund (V1 + ing).
• The second action was finished before the main verb: a perfect form (to have + V3, having + V3).

This time idea is a useful guide, but the lists below are the patterns to learn. Some gerund verbs also look forward (I am considering leaving tomorrow, We postponed meeting until Friday).

Verbs followed by an infinitive. To show a futuristic action, these verbs take to + V1.

invite, request, expect, refuse, afford, encourage, force, compel, persuade, order, tell, remind, agree, decide, hope, promise, seem, manage, plan, offer, pretend, threaten, fail, wish

More verbs of the same kind: appear, arrange, ask, attempt, choose, claim, dare, forbid, hesitate, learn, prepare, tend, venture, wait, want.

Think of hope. You hope for something that is yet to happen. Decide, plan, promise, refuse, fail, manage all look ahead in the same way. That is why the next verb is to + V1.

✘ Avika hopes getting a distinction in English.
✔ Avika hopes to get a distinction in English.
✘ We can't afford going abroad.
✔ We can't afford to go abroad.
✔ Illness compelled him to stay in bed.

Two patterns. Some of these verbs are followed directly by the infinitive. Others need an object (a person) in between.

Pattern 1: verb + to + V1. hope, plan, decide, promise, refuse, fail, manage, afford, agree, seem, pretend, threaten, offer, wish, want, wait, learn.

✔ The workers' union has threatened to go on an indefinite strike.
✔ After finishing high school, I plan to pursue law.
✔ If you wish to participate at the national level, you'll have to start coaching immediately.
✔ Everybody wants to win a prize in the arts competition.

Pattern 2: verb + object + to + V1. invite, request, urge, expect, force, compel, persuade, order, tell, remind, encourage, advise, allow, permit, forbid, ask, want.

✔ I told the tailor to make a new dress for me.
✔ The teacher expected the students to finish the project on time.
✔ My friend did not understand the story. She asked me to explain it to her.

✘ They persuaded me for doing their homework. (use to do)
✘ He ordered them for saving the money. (use to save)
✘ The workers' union has threatened for going to an indefinite strike. (use to go on)
✘ The teacher expected the students had finishing the project. (use to finish)
✘ She wanted telling you who you could approach. (use to tell)

> For + -ing and V + -ing are the two usual wrong substitutes. If the verb looks ahead, write to + V1, with no for.

Perfect infinitive after these verbs. When the action is already over, the perfect infinitive is used: He seems to have worked hard (see the unit on forms).

The second group works on the opposite idea. These verbs are followed by a gerund because the second action goes on at the same time as the main verb, or it is already done. Nothing here is "to be done in the future".

[[chips: enjoy | suggest | avoid | finish | deny | admit | mind | postpone]]

appreciate, enjoy, suggest, consider, admit, resist, contemplate, detest, dislike, deny, avoid, delay, forgive, mind, be busy, can't help, anticipate, escape, finish, imagine, keep (on), miss, postpone, practise, quit, recall, risk, prevent

More verbs of this kind: acknowledge, discuss, excuse, fancy, involve, report, resent, tolerate, understand.

Take enjoy. You enjoy something while it is happening, so enjoy playing. Take deny. You deny something that is already done, so deny stealing. Avoid, finish, postpone, delay, mind, recall, miss, quit are all like this.

✔ I enjoy playing with my friends.
✘ He suggested to go to Delhi. (use going)
✘ I don't mind to tell people my age. (use telling)
✘ The man denied to steal the camera. (use stealing)
✘ Anita enjoyed to swim in the sea. (use swimming)
✘ Bhanu finished to read such a thick book in two days. (use reading)
✘ Do you recall to meet her at the party last night? (use meeting)
✔ They postponed going on vacation due to adverse weather.
✔ I don't fancy going out this evening.
✔ I try to avoid travelling in the rush hour.

Points that the examiner often tests

1. Suggest never takes an infinitive: She suggested going there, not to go.

2. Insist takes on, and a gerund follows: ✔ She insisted on accompanying me. ✘ She insisted to accompany me.

3. Prevent (and stop, in the sense of "keep someone from") takes from + gerund: ✘ He was prevented to accept the assignment. ✔ He was prevented from accepting the assignment.

4. Can't help and can't stand: ✔ I cannot help laughing. ✔ I cannot help but laugh. (bare infinitive after but) ✔ I can't stand waiting in long queues.

5. A completed earlier action takes the perfect gerund: ✔ He denied having stolen the money.

> Do not decide by the Hindi meaning. Enjoy and finish feel like "ready to do", but the time idea tells you otherwise: they are done at the same time, or are over, so the gerund is right.

Some verbs take an infinitive and a gerund both. For some of them the meaning stays the same. For others the meaning changes, so the verb decides nothing by itself: the meaning decides. For each verb that changes meaning, ask one question: has the action already happened?

Memory aids from the table

• Forget and remember: the gerund looks back (I remember posting the letter: I posted it and I remember). The infinitive looks ahead (I remember to post the letter: I must not forget to do it).
• I forgot posting the letter means I posted it, but I forgot that I did. I forgot to post the letter means I never posted it.
• Stop: the gerund is the thing you stop. The infinitive is the reason you stopped.
• Try: the gerund is an experiment (try adding some sugar). The infinitive is an effort (try to read it).
• Regret: the gerund is sorrow for something already done. Regret to inform / to tell is formal bad news.

✘ She forgot lock the door when she went out in a hurry. (use to lock)
✘ I regret in notify that the model you want is out of stock. (use to notify)
✘ Nowadays, many doctors advise to live in the countryside. (no object is named, so use living)
✘ In this lock-down period every worker has started bring their own lunch. (use to bring or bringing)
✘ He prefers spend his spare time watching horror movies. (use spending or to spend)
✔ He continued taking sugar in his tea, despite the doctor's warning. (continue takes either)
✔ The young boy tried to jerk out of the way, but she began rubbing the tip of his nose. (begin takes either)

Know and show: the wh-word is a must. After know and show, an infinitive needs a wh-word before it.

Structure: know / show + wh-word + to + V1

✘ She doesn't know to read.
✔ She doesn't know how to read.
✘ She showed me to solve this puzzle. (use how to solve)
✘ She showed me to go. (use where to go)
✘ He does not know to read and write English. (use how to read)
✔ At the workshop, they were taught how to nail the pieces of wood together.
✔ The magazine teaches parents how to behave towards their children.

Teach, learn, decide, ask, explain, forget, understand, tell: the wh-word is allowed, but not compulsory.

Structure: verb + (wh-word) + to + V1

✔ He asked me to solve the puzzle. (he told me to solve it)
✔ He asked me how to solve the puzzle. (he asked me the method)
✔ I forgot to write a letter. (I did not write it)
✔ I forgot how to write a letter. (I no longer know the method)
✔ She didn't learn when to stop.
✔ She didn't learn to read.
✔ She didn't learn how to read. (the last two mean the same)

> Choose the wh-word by meaning, not by memory. I don't know what to say (the object is missing). Tell me whom to contact (a person as the object). I am confused about where to sleep (place). A rote shortcut like "always use how" fails here.

A participle is a verb form that works as an adjective, and sometimes as an adverb. That is why it is also called a verbal adjective. Compare these two sentences.

✔ Radhika is reading a book.
✔ Radhika is reading an interesting book.

Reading and interesting are both -ing forms of a verb. In the first sentence reading is a verb (it is a part of is reading). In the second, interesting tells us about the book, so it is an adjective. That interesting is a present participle.

Present participle (V1 + ing). It works as an adjective and shows an active meaning. The noun it describes is the doer.

✔ A crying baby needs milk. (the baby cries)
✔ A smiling girl welcomed us. (the girl smiles)

Past participle (V3). It works as an adjective and usually shows a passive meaning, so it is also called the passive participle. The noun it describes is not the doer: it receives the action.

✔ I bought a broken chair. (the chair has been broken)
✔ The injured dog was taken to the vet. (the dog has been injured)

How to decide. Ask who or what does the action. If the noun does it, use *-ing*. If the noun is on the receiving end, use V3.

A frightening story = a story that frightens
A frightened boy = a boy who is frightened
A confusing question = a question that confuses
A confused student = a student who is confused
A satisfying story = a story that satisfies
A satisfied boy = a boy who is satisfied

✘ I bought a breaking chair. (use broken; the chair is in a broken state)
✘ The barked dog woke me up. (use barking; the dog is the one barking)
✘ It was a very tired journey. (use tiring; the journey makes us tired)
✘ Rashmi was quite amusing when she heard about what had happened. (use amused; Rashmi felt amused)
✘ One of the most horrified serials of the Indian television. (use horrifying; the serials horrify us)
✘ The sky is covering with dark clouds. (use covered; the clouds cover the sky)
✘ A soothe voice must convey confidence. (use soothing; the voice soothes)
✘ Imagine using the recently discovering technology. (use discovered)
✔ These are his concluding remarks.

[[parse: S=The sky | HV=is | MV=covered | P=with dark clouds]]

When the third form and the adjective form are different. The third form of a verb and its adjective form are usually the same. A few verbs have two different forms. Remember them.

✔ The mango is rotten. (is is a main verb here, and a complement is needed: an adjective)
✔ The mango has rotted. (has is a helping verb, and V3 is needed)

> Drunk can be a noun, an adjective or V3. When it works as an adjective it is usually without a noun (He was drunk). Before a noun, drunken is preferred (a drunken husband), though drunk is also accepted. Also remember laden and loaded: The air was laden with fragrance (a natural load), but The cart was loaded with fruit (a person loaded it).

A relative clause (the clause that starts with who, which, that) can be shortened into a participle phrase. This is called a reduced clause or a participle clause. The method is simple: remove the relative pronoun and keep the rest.

Active sense: present participle. If the relative clause has an active meaning, the subject + verb is replaced by the present participle (V1 + ing). The subject of the relative clause is the relative pronoun (who, which, that).

Passive sense: past participle. If the relative clause is passive, the subject + verb (who was, which was) is replaced by the past participle (V3).

✔ The book that was written by me has become a bestseller. → The book written by me has become a bestseller.
✔ The boy who was caught by the police is my friend. → The boy caught by the police is my friend.
✔ The suspect who was arrested last night denied everything. → The suspect arrested last night denied everything.
✔ The reduction in cost due to subsidies that are offered by the government is a reason to study more. → ... subsidies offered by the government ...
✔ A boy drowned in a pit that was dug up for the road project. → ... a pit dug up for the road project.
✔ The investigation that was conducted by the research team gave good results. → The investigation conducted by the research team gave good results.

✘ The investigation conducting by the research team yielded results. (use conducted)
✘ Subsidies offer by the government are seen as a reason to study more. (use offered)
✘ A pit digging up for the road project. (use dug)

Two cautions

1. One-time or sudden actions in the past do not take the present participle. A present participle shows a continuing or a state-like action. For a single, sudden action in the past, keep the full relative clause.

✘ There was a lion frightening me.
✔ There was a lion that frightened me.

2. An intransitive verb has no passive, so it cannot take a past participle. (Intransitive verbs are those that take no object, like arise, lie, fall, happen.) Keep the full relative clause.

✘ The problem arisen last week has been solved. (use that arose)
✘ The bag lain there is mine. (use that lay)
✔ The problem that arose last week has been solved.
✔ The bag that lay there is mine.

> The same reduction is possible when the relative clause is a state: the books lying on the table (the books are lying there), the coaching centres found violating the law (they were found in the act).

A participle phrase can also do the work of an adverb clause. It can show time, reason, contrast, result, manner, or simply a second action going on alongside the first.

✔ He ran into the room screaming.
✔ He came back carrying milk.

The word and gives it away. When two finite verbs are joined by and, the second can be changed into a participle. If a sentence has two finite verbs and nothing joins them, the sentence is wrong.

✘ Cyclone Amphan roared into West Bengal on Wednesday leave behind a trail of devastation.
✔ Cyclone Amphan roared into West Bengal on Wednesday, leaving behind a trail of devastation.
✔ The storm caused extensive damage to homes, leaving many families homeless.
✔ The rescue team dug out a soldier from the snow, wondering how he could have survived for seven days.
✘ The Board held a meeting sorting out the issue. (use to sort out, since this is a purpose)

Perfect participle: having + V3. When the action of the participle clause was complete before the action of the main clause, use the perfect participle. For a passive sense use having been + V3.

✔ Having taken a bath, he had his breakfast. (first the bath, then the breakfast)
✔ After taking a bath, he had his breakfast. (the same idea)
✔ On taking a bath, he had his breakfast.
✔ Having been repaired, the TV worked well. (passive sense)
✔ Having taken permission, Shivam went horse riding.
✘ Having just taking a heavy lunch, she was not ready to have fruit. (use taken: having needs V3)
✘ Have taken permission, Shivam went horse riding. (use Having taken)

Simultaneous actions take the simple participle. If the two actions go on at the same time, a perfect participle is wrong.

✘ Having played cricket, he injured his finger.
✔ Playing cricket, he injured his finger. (the two happened together)

Passive participle: being + V3. When the participle clause has a passive sense and the action goes on along with the main action, use being + V3.

✔ Being treated unfairly, he felt hurt.
✔ Being frightened by the explosion, the crowd ran in panic.
✔ Being excited by the news, the students started celebrating.
✘ Frighting by the explosion, the crowd ran in panic. (use Being frightened)
✔ Blinded by a dust storm, they fell into disorder. (being can be dropped)

If the passive action was complete earlier, use having been + V3.

✔ Having been warned, he became careful.

Being or having been? The two are not the same. If the passive action was going on along with the main action, use being + V3. If it was already over before the main action began, use having been + V3.

✘ Being largely ignored in the early discussions, the charter was again reviewed. (the ignoring came first, the review later)
✔ Having been largely ignored in the early discussions, the charter was again reviewed.
✔ Being watched by the whole class, Radhika felt nervous while she spoke. (both happened together)

A participle phrase has no subject of its own. When it stands at the start of a sentence, the doer of the participle is the subject of the main clause. If that subject cannot do the action, the participle is "dangling" (also called misrelated), and the sentence is wrong. This is the most common participle error in the exam.

✔ Walking down the street, I saw a snake. (I was walking)
✘ Walking down the street, the trees looked beautiful. (trees do not walk)
✘ Walking on the road, a rickshaw hit him. (the rickshaw was not walking)
✘ Entering the hall, the show had started. (the show did not enter)
✘ Running across the playground, my pen fell in the mud. (a pen cannot run)
✘ Driving fast, the accident seemed unavoidable to the frightened passengers.
✘ Being very lazy, his business failed miserably.

[[parse: X=Walking on the road | S=a rickshaw | V=hit | O=him]]

In each wrong sentence the noun right after the comma is made the doer of the participle by mistake. Ask: who is walking, running, entering? If the answer is not the subject of the main clause, the sentence is faulty.

Three ways to correct it

1. Change the main clause, usually by changing its voice, so that the real doer becomes the subject.

✘ Walking on the road, a rickshaw hit him.
✔ Walking on the road, he was hit by a rickshaw.
✘ Running across the playground, my pen fell in the mud.
✔ Running across the playground, I dropped my pen in the mud.

2. Open the participle phrase into a full clause with its own subject.

✔ While I was walking down the street, the trees looked beautiful.
✔ As he was driving fast, the accident seemed unavoidable to the frightened passengers.
✔ As he was very lazy, his business failed miserably.
✔ When I entered the hall, the show had started.

3. Give the participle its own subject (absolute construction). A noun or pronoun is placed in front of the participle to show who the doer is. The participle then has a doer of its own and no longer depends on the main subject.

✘ Being a rainy day, we did not feel like going out.
✔ It being a rainy day, we did not feel like going out.
✔ The weather being fine, we went out for a walk.

Being a rainy day has no doer that can "be a rainy day", because we cannot be a rainy day. So it is put before being.

Fixed participles need no doer. A few participles work as fixed phrases, and they are accepted without a subject reference. They are called misrelated participles, but they are correct.

generally speaking, considering ..., supposing ..., taking ... into consideration, judging from ...

✔ Generally speaking, he doesn't care about his family.
✔ Judging from the long faces in the room, the news for us isn't good.

More examples of the same trap. Whatever the participle is, the noun after the comma is its doer.

✘ Being a doctor, the patient's health is my top priority. (the patient's health is not a doctor)
✔ Being a doctor, I treat the patient's health as my top priority.
✘ Having finished the work, the lights were switched off. (the lights did not finish the work)
✔ Having finished the work, we switched off the lights.

In the second pair the passive main clause (the lights were switched off) hides the real doer. Bring the doer back as the subject (we), and the sentence is repaired.

The -ing form is used for both the gerund and the present participle. The job it does in the sentence decides which one it is.

A crying baby = a baby that is crying (participle)
A running horse = a horse that is running (participle)
A smiling girl = a girl who is smiling (participle)
A sleeping bag = a bag for sleeping (gerund)
A dining table = a table for dining (gerund)
Running shoes = shoes for running (gerund)

Look at these pairs. When the -ing form comes before a noun, ask: does it tell the purpose of the noun, or does it describe the noun?

✔ I like playing. (playing is the object of like: a gerund)
✔ I saw him playing. (playing describes him: a present participle)
✔ Smiling is a good habit. (a gerund as the subject)
✔ A smiling face makes the day. (a participle describing face)

> Some words only name a type or a material, and are not gerunds or participles in the usual sense: a computer table, a wooden table, a glass cover. Look at the meaning before you decide.

Verbs of finding: find, spot, discover, smell, catch, leave, keep + object + V1+ing

These verbs are normally followed by an object and the present participle. The object is caught while the action is going on.

✔ We found him doing something.
✔ I found my bag lying where I had left it.
✔ The teacher caught a student cheating.
✔ The civic bodies have formed teams to crack down on coaching centres found violating the law.
✘ I found my bag to lie where I had left it. (use lying)
✔ I smelt something burning. (exam keys prefer *-ing*)
✘ I caught him steal my purse. (use stealing)

If the sentence shows a purpose, the infinitive is used instead.

✔ We found a pen to write the letter with. (a pen for writing)
✔ The teacher caught a student to punish him. (purpose: to punish)

Verbs of perception: see, watch, hear, feel, notice, overhear + object + bare infinitive or V1+ing

Both forms are correct, but the meaning is different.

• Bare infinitive: the action is seen or heard from start to finish, as a complete single action.
• V1 + ing: the action is seen or heard in progress, or only a part of it.

✔ I saw him cross the road. (I saw him go all the way across)
✔ I saw him crossing the road. (I saw him while he was crossing)
✔ I heard her sing a beautiful song. (the whole song)
✔ I heard her singing. (I heard her while she sang)
✔ Yesterday I saw my brother repair his friend's bicycle.
✔ I watched him fall.

✘ I watched the thief stole the purse. (use steal or stealing)
✘ They heard someone talked about him. (use talk or talking)
✘ We watched the workmen to repair the tiles of the kitchen. (use repair or repairing)

> After these verbs the infinitive with to is wrong unless a purpose is meant. For a purpose, to + V1, in order to + V1 or so as to + V1 can be used. In the passive, to comes back: He was seen to cross the road.

Most students think a subject is a single noun or a pronoun. But a whole clause can be the subject too, and in the long sentences of the CGL 2025 paper this is exactly where the trap was set. When a sentence opens with That, What, Whether, How, Why or The fact that, the entire opening clause is the subject, and the whole clause is one idea. One idea takes a singular verb.

[[parse: S=That the report failed to address the root causes of the unrest | V=was | C=surprising]]

The "It" test. Put the whole subject in a bracket and say It in its place. It were surprising sounds wrong, so the verb must be was. The test works because a clause is one idea, and it stands for one idea.

✘ That the report failed to address the root causes of the unrest were surprising. (use was)
✔ That the report failed to address the root causes of the unrest was surprising.
✘ How the prisoners escaped remain a mystery. (use remains)
✔ How the prisoners escaped remains a mystery.

Do not take the verb from the nearest noun. In the first sentence the plural noun causes sits inside the clause, and unrest comes right before the verb. The eye jumps to it and we write were. But those nouns are only small parts inside the clause. The real subject is the whole clause. So first find the main verb, then look at the whole opening clause together.

The fact that. Here the that-clause only explains the noun fact. So fact is the subject, and it is singular. Even if the clause contains a plural noun, the verb stays singular.

✘ The fact that dissenting opinions are stifled reflect a deeper problem.
✔ The fact that dissenting opinions are stifled reflects a deeper problem.

> Compare The facts that he gave us were wrong. Here facts is plural and that he gave us is a relative clause, so the verb is plural. The singular concept belongs to the fact that, where the clause explains the fact.

Two clauses joined by and. Two clauses are two separate ideas, so the verb is plural.

✔ What he says and what he does are two different things.

The word after the verb does not decide. In a what-clause sentence the word after is may be plural. The verb agrees with the what-clause, which is the subject, and not with the complement that follows. SSC keys the singular verb.

✘ What the villagers need most are clean water and a proper road to the town.
✔ What the villagers need most is clean water and a proper road to the town.

A gerund phrase (Reading novels) or an infinitive phrase (To build these bridges) can also be the subject of a sentence. Both name an action, and one action is one idea, so the verb is singular. The verb agrees with the action, that is, with the gerund or the infinitive, and never with the noun that comes after it.

✘ Reading novels improve your vocabulary. (use improves)
✔ Reading novels improves your vocabulary.
✘ To build these bridges take five years. (use takes)
✔ To build these bridges takes five years.
✔ Walking in the morning keeps you fit.
✔ To err is human.

Why not novels? Because novels is only the object of reading, the thing that is read. What improves your vocabulary is the act of reading. The same It test works here: It improves your vocabulary.

A possessive does not change this. When the gerund phrase begins with my, his, their or Ram's, the head word is still the gerund.

✔ Their winning the match has made the whole town proud.
✔ His coming late every day annoys the teacher.

Long gerund phrases. The longer the phrase, the more nouns sit in it, and the more the plural ones tempt us. Look past all of them to the gerund at the start.

✘ Knowing the particular things that motivate each person help you add power to their motivation. (things and motivate are plural, but the subject is knowing)
✔ Knowing the particular things that motivate each person helps you add power to their motivation.

Two gerunds joined by and, or one gerund with two objects. This is a frequent trap, so read carefully.

✔ Cooking and cleaning take up most of her day.
✔ Collecting old coins and stamps is my father's favourite hobby.
✘ Collecting old coins and stamps are my father's favourite hobby.

Count the gerunds, not the nouns. Two gerunds mean two actions, which is plural. One gerund with a list of objects is one action, which is singular.

Gerund or infinitive as subject? Both are correct. The gerund is more common for an activity in general (Swimming is good exercise). The infinitive is common for an aim or a general truth (To err is human), and it also follows the introductory it (It takes five years to build these bridges).

The infinitive has a form for time as well. The simple infinitive (to write) shows an action at the same time as the main verb, or after it. The perfect infinitive (to have + V3) shows an action that was finished before the main verb. It also has a passive form, to have been + V3.

Seem, appear, be said, be reported, be believed. After these verbs the infinitive tells us what is said or seen about someone. If the action is going on now, use the simple infinitive. If the action is over, use the perfect infinitive.

✔ He seems to be happy. (now)
✔ He seems to have been happy. (earlier)
✔ Radhika seems to have left the office already. (already shows that it is over)
✔ He is reported to have left the city last night. (last night is past)

After to have, always V3. The verb after to have is never V1 or V2.

✘ He is said to have went abroad last year. (use gone)
✘ The minister is reported to have resign after the scandal. (use resigned)
✘ Radhika seems to be left the office already. (use to have left)

It is said that ... and ... is said to ... The two patterns carry the same meaning, but the tense of the that-clause decides the infinitive. A past that-clause becomes to have + V3. A present that-clause becomes the simple infinitive.

✔ It is said that he was a great king. = He is said to have been a great king.
✔ It is said that he is a great king. = He is said to be a great king.

Voice: the perfect infinitive changes its shape, not its time. When a sentence with a perfect passive infinitive is turned into the active voice, to have been + V3 becomes to have + V3, the *by*-doer becomes the subject, and the main verb keeps its own tense.

✔ The land is believed to have been acquired illegally by the company.
✔ The company is believed to have acquired the land illegally.

Notice that is believed stays is believed. A wrong option usually turns to have been into to be, or turns is believed into was believed. So check three things: the shape of the infinitive, the tense of the main verb, and whether the doer has become the subject.

The perfect infinitive has two more jobs in the exam. Both are about something that did not happen, or that is past and finished.

1. A plan or hope that did not come true. After meant, intended, hoped, expected and planned, the perfect infinitive tells us that the plan was not carried out.

✔ I meant to have called you, but I forgot. (I did not call)
✔ He hoped to have finished the report by Monday. (he did not finish it)

In everyday English we also say I meant to call you. The perfect infinitive makes it clear in one go that the plan failed.

2. A wish about the past: would like / would love / would prefer + to have + V3. We wanted something, but we did not get the chance.

✔ I would like to have seen the Taj Mahal. (I did not see it)
✔ She would love to have joined the trip. (she did not join)

The same meaning can be written with the past form of the modal and a simple infinitive: I would have liked to see the Taj Mahal.

Put the past in one place only. Choose either would like to have seen or would have liked to see. If we write the perfect twice, would have liked to have seen, the past is repeated, and SSC treats the second perfect as the error.

✔ I would like to have seen the Taj Mahal.
✔ I would have liked to see the Taj Mahal.
✘ I would have liked to have seen the Taj Mahal. (keep only one perfect)

> If this double perfect is the only fault in an error-spotting sentence, mark it. If the options give a clean version, choose the clean version.

3. Modal + have + V3. After could, should, would, must, might and ought to, the perfect form is have + V3. The word after the modal is have (V1), never had.

✘ The files must had been deleted by someone.
✔ The files must have been deleted by someone.
✘ The work should had been completed yesterday.
✔ The work should have been completed yesterday.
✔ The letter ought to have been posted yesterday.

Was / were to have + V3. In formal English, an arrangement that did not take place is also written with was to have and V3.

✔ The minister was to have inaugurated the bridge, but he fell ill.