Conjunction

A co-ordinating conjunction joins structures of the same rank: a word with a word, a phrase with a phrase, a clause with a clause. There are only seven of them, and we remember them with the mnemonic FANBOYS.

[[chips: for | and | nor | but | or | yet | so]]

And or but? Both words join two equal parts, but their jobs are different. And adds one idea to another. But marks a contrast that the speaker sees.

Whether two ideas contrast depends on what the speaker expects, not on the words being "good" or "bad". Read the context.

✔ Radhika is beautiful and intelligent. (just adding)
✔ Prashant can teach English and can also teach mathematics. (adding)
✔ Lokesh can teach maths but cannot teach English. (ability and inability)
✔ Mahesh is my friend, but I do not like him. (a surprise)
✔ He is poor and honest. / He is poor but honest. (both are grammatical; but adds the idea that this is a surprise)
✘ Radhika is intelligent but hardworking. (nothing is set against anything, so and is the natural word; this is a point of style)

> But shows contrast, yet the pair not only … but also joins ideas of the same kind: He is not only smart but also intelligent. The pair is taught in its own unit.

Four concepts cover almost everything the exam asks about FANBOYS.

1. Where it stands. The main clause comes first and the co-ordinate clause follows it. And and but can also begin a sentence in good writing (But if you agree, we can proceed). SSC error-spotting questions test a conjunction that joins unlike parts, or two conjunctions stacked for one link, not a sentence that starts with a conjunction.
✔ But if you agree, we can proceed.
✘ He came here and and he looked at me. (two conjunctions for one link)
> Words such as nevertheless, however, still are adverbs, so they follow a full stop or semicolon as a matter of course. And, but, or join two parts of a sentence, and the exam checks that the parts they join are of the same kind.

2. A comma may come before a co-ordinating conjunction. It is usual before but.

✔ He came here and he looked at me.
✔ He came here, and he looked at me.

In a list, write A, B and C. Do not write A and B and C. A comma also stops a wrong reading. In He ate apples, oranges and washed his hands, it seems that he ate his hands. The sentence is repaired like this:

✔ He ate apples and oranges, and washed his hands.

3. One conjunction for two clauses. Two conjunctions are not used together to join the same two clauses. Think of a magnet: one magnet joins two iron pieces, and three pieces need two magnets. Two clauses need one conjunction, three clauses need two.

The usual exceptions are the pairs and yet, and so, and thus (also and hence, and therefore). Here and is the conjunction and the second word is only an adverb.

✔ He has a good job, and yet he never seems to have any money.
✔ Profits were falling and so was the stock price.
✔ Abhishek is the eldest son and thus he is the heir to the throne.
✘ Our nation can make progress but if we all work together. (use only if)

With more than two clauses, two conjunctions can stand side by side, because each one joins a different pair.

✔ She said that she was tired and that she wanted to go home.

4. Same rank on both sides. This is the concept behind most questions. A subject goes with a subject, an object with an object, an infinitive with an infinitive, a V2 with a V2, an -ing with an -ing, an adjective with an adjective. "If the weight goes up on one side and down on the other, the idea of co-ordination fails."

✘ Joe's favourite water sports are sailing, swimming and to surf. (use surfing)
✘ Helena loves to dig and played in the dirt. (use play)
✘ Vidya put on her mask, sanitise her hands and walked into the shop. (use sanitised)
✔ Radhika loves reading, writing and singing.

Look at one more sentence: *Hands have been crucial tools for finding and eating food, and helping us navigate the world.* Finding and eating share the object food, so they form one unit with their own and. The comma and the second and then join that unit to helping us navigate the world.

Conjunctions that work in pairs with adverbs and join structures of equal rank are called co-relative conjunctions. They are really a special form of co-ordinating conjunctions, because they too join parts of the same rank.

[[chips: either … or | neither … nor]]

1. The pair must frame same-rank parts. Put the first word of the pair right before the first item and the second word right before the second item, so that both sides look alike.

✔ You can eat neither the pizza nor the burger. (noun + noun)
✔ You can either enjoy the food or watch a movie. (V1 + V1)
✘ You can neither eat the pizza nor the burger. (a verb on one side, a noun on the other)

2. The right partner only. Either goes with or, and neither goes with nor. Any other partner is a trap.

✘ Either you go alone and come with us. (use or)
✘ Neither he or his brother wants to play. (use nor)
✘ Neither she not I am going. (use nor; not is not a conjunction)

3. Which verb? If two subjects are joined by a co-relative pair, the verb agrees with the subject that is nearer to the verb.

✔ Neither she nor I am going. (I is nearer, so am)
✔ Either Ramesh or Reema has the keys. (Reema is nearer, so has)
✔ Neither the manager nor the employees were available. (employees is nearer, so were)

4. Choice or refusal? Either … or means one of the two is allowed or true. Neither … nor means both are refused. Read the last words of the sentence before you choose: in You can have … jam … butter, but not both, one of the two is allowed, so the pair is either … or.

Not only … but also emphasises a fact and adds something more to it. It joins parts of the same kind, so it is not a contrast like but alone.

✔ This is not only easy but also attractive.
✔ Radhika is not only beautiful but also hardworking.

1. Same rank on both sides. Not only goes right before the first item, never between an article and its noun.

✔ Rishi bought not only a book but also a pen.
✘ Rishi bought a not only book but also pen.
✔ This was not only exciting but also rewarding. (adjective + adjective)
✘ This was not only exciting but also rewarded.

2. Words can come between but and also. A subject or a verb may sit between them.

✔ He has not only solved it but he has also explained it.
✔ Not only did she forget my birthday, but she also didn't even apologise for forgetting it.

3. Only can be changed to just.

✔ India's stupas were not just religious monuments, but also cultural centres.
✔ India's stupas were not only religious monuments, but also cultural centres.

4. If also is moved to the end, use too or as well. Also itself cannot end the sentence.

✘ He has not only solved it but he has explained it also.
✔ He has not only solved it but he has explained it too.
✔ He has not only solved it but he has explained it as well.

5. Inversion. When not only begins the sentence, the helping verb comes before the subject, and the main verb takes the form that the helping verb needs.

✔ Not only did the manager give me a refund, but he also offered me a 50% discount.
✘ Not only the manager give me a refund, but he also offered me a discount.

6. The verb agrees with the nearer subject, as with either … or.

✔ Not only Rishi but also his parents love the new house. (parents is nearer, so the plural verb)
✔ Not only the minister but also the bureaucrats have been accused.

7. Wrong partners. Not only needs but also. And also, but even and yet also are wrong.

✘ She was not only intelligent and also very musical. (use but also)

Both … and is the positive partner. It joins two items of the same rank and takes a plural verb. Both … from and both … to are wrong.

✔ He was famous both at home and at school.
✔ Her presentation was both informative and entertaining.
✘ He was famous both at home from at school.

Exams often ask questions on conjunction pairs, and the error is set by making a wrong pair. Learn each pair as one unit.

Between … and and from … to. Between 9 a.m. and 11 a.m. means at some point inside that window: I take breakfast between 9 a.m. and 11 a.m. From 9 a.m. to 11 a.m. means continuously across the whole stretch: I watched a movie from 9 a.m. to 11 a.m. The noun difference also takes between … and.

Either … or and whether … or. Either … or chooses one of two things. Whether … or (not) says that something is the case or is not.

✘ You are either going and playing. (use or)
✘ Whether you are going and not. (use or)
✔ I don't know whether to stay or leave.

Not … or and not … and. When or follows not or never, both things are negated. And after not is possible only when it joins one compound noun.

✔ He does not like tea or biscuit. (= he likes neither tea nor biscuit)
✔ He does not like tea and biscuit. (= he does not like the single dish "tea with biscuit")
✘ He does not like blue and yellow colours. (use or)
✔ He never prefers blue or yellow shirts.

Rather … than, other … than, else … but. After would rather … than the base form follows on both sides: A sincere aspirant would rather study than scroll Instagram. After did nothing but the verb also stays in the base form: He did nothing but complain.

As … as and so … as. As … as is used for equal comparison. A negative comparison can take so … as: He is not so friendly as she is. Than belongs only to comparatives (more … than), never to as or so.

The pairs no sooner … than, hardly … when, lest … should, though … yet, too … to and so … that have their own units.

These pairs say that one action followed another almost at once. Each has a fixed partner.

[[chips: no sooner … than | hardly … when | scarcely … when]]

Tense pattern. The first clause, with no sooner or hardly / scarcely, usually takes the past perfect (had + V3). The clause after the partner takes the simple past.

✔ No sooner had she said it than she burst into tears.
✔ Scarcely had the train stopped at the platform when the passengers started pushing each other.
✔ Hardly had I entered the room when I heard a strange noise.

Inversion. When the sentence begins with no sooner or hardly, the helping verb comes before the subject. The second form did + V1 is also met, with the simple past after the partner.

✔ No sooner did the child start crying than the mother hugged him.
✘ No sooner the results were announced than the shareholders started questioning the management. (use No sooner were the results announced)

In the middle of a sentence there is no inversion.

✔ They had hardly completed half of the work when the boss called them.
✔ She had no sooner taken a few steps forward than she suddenly recoiled.

> As soon as means the same thing, but it has no partner word. As soon as I saw him, I stopped is correct, and no sooner as is not.

Conjunctions that are not co-ordinating conjunctions are called sub-ordinating conjunctions. A sub-ordinating conjunction makes one clause depend on another. The clause that begins with it cannot stand alone; it works as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in the sentence. Such a clause can usually be written before or after the main clause.

Time

Condition

Other meanings

What kind of clause does it begin?

Adverb clauses

Although, though and even though are all used in the sense of "despite the fact that". They show that the second part is unexpected after the first.

✔ Although everyone played well, we lost the game.
✔ Though he plays well, he has not been selected in the team.

1. A sentence with although or though needs only one joining word. Two conjunctions cannot join the same two clauses, so but is wrong here. After the although clause you may use yet, or just a comma.

✘ Although everyone played well but we lost the game.
✔ Although everyone played well yet we lost the game.
✔ Although everyone played well, we lost the game.

Modern English prefers the comma without yet.

2. Though can also be an adverb. For that reason though can sit at the end of a sentence, but although cannot.

✔ We lost the game; everyone played well, though.
✘ We lost the game; everyone played well, although.

3. A clause follows, not a noun phrase. Although and though need a subject and a verb. Before a noun phrase use despite or in spite of (without of after despite).

✘ Though the global financial crisis, China's economy continues to grow.
✔ Despite the global financial crisis, China's economy continues to grow.
✔ Though there was a global financial crisis, China's economy continues to grow.

4. Even alone is not a conjunction. For contrast use even though. For a condition use even if.

✘ Alex picked up the boxes easily even they were heavy.
✔ Alex picked up the boxes easily even though they were heavy.

5. Even if and even though. Even if gives an opposite condition: He will clear the exam even if no one helps him. The result stays the same whether the condition is met or not. Even though talks about a fact: Even though it was raining heavily, the children stayed outdoors.

6. Whereas and while. Both show a contrast between two clauses; whereas is a little more formal. The two clauses talk about two different things or people.

✔ The wise try to improve themselves whereas the fools keep blaming their luck.
✔ I remember the accident vividly, while her brother had already forgotten it.

7. Contrast needs the right pair. Though … yet and although … yet are right. Though … but and although … but are wrong.

So … that and such … that show a result. So is followed by an adjective or an adverb, and such by a noun phrase.

✔ She was so tired that she couldn't think straight.
✔ The air quality is so bad that it becomes difficult to breathe.
✔ My mother speaks in such a low voice that it is difficult to understand her.
✘ My mother speaks in so a low voice. (use such a low voice or so low a voice)
✘ He was so tired to walk. (use so tired that he couldn't walk)

Do not mix this so … that (a result) with so that (a purpose). That is taught in the unit on purpose.

Too … to has a negative meaning, because a not is hidden in it. So … that gives the same meaning, but you have to add the not yourself.

✔ He is too weak to walk. (= He is so weak that he cannot walk.)
✔ He is too intelligent to fail. (= He is so intelligent that he can't fail.)
✘ He is too weak than walk. (too needs to)

Two ways to show someone's capability

The common trap. Too has a negative meaning and enough a positive one, so they do not come together in one phrase. They can appear in different phrases of one sentence (too tired to walk, but strong enough to talk); look at each phrase separately.

✘ He is too intelligent enough to answer.
✔ He is intelligent enough to answer.
✔ He is too intelligent to fail. (too … to is right here, in its negative sense)

> In a sentence such as The assignment was too difficult for Mohit to do, the words for Mohit can stand between difficult and to. The pattern is still too … to.

A reason always has a result. The joining word goes either before the reason or before the result, and the exam swaps one for the other. So first name the two parts, then ask whether the result is expected or unexpected.

Ask: "He has failed. What would be expected?" That he did not work hard. So He did not work hard, so he failed is expected, and He worked hard, but he failed is unexpected.

✔ The teacher punished him because he was late. (reason: late; result: punishment)
✔ He was late because he had missed the train. (the earlier action takes the past perfect)
✔ He is talented, but he needs more practice. (unexpected)

Key principle. For a reason we normally use a subordinating conjunction. For a result we normally do not; we use so or an adverb such as therefore. And because the reason is already shown by one word, the result must not carry a second word of the same job.

✘ Because he studied hard, so he passed. (drop so)
✘ As we worked late at night, that's why we are tired. (drop that's why)
✘ Since I am suffering from fever, therefore I can't come to office. (drop therefore)
✘ The bus broke down because we had to walk some distance. (the walking is the result; use so)
✔ As Gagan wanted to be selected in the team, he worked very hard.

If … then is correct (If you return the book by Friday, then the librarian will not charge a fine). Then can be left out and adds emphasis to the result. When … then is fine too.

✔ When he comes, I will tell him.
✔ If it rains, then I don't play outside. (then can be left out)

Which reason word? Because brings new information and usually comes after the main clause. As and since give a reason the listener already knows and usually come first. The difference is small in most questions.

Conjunction or conjunctive adverb? Some words seem to join two clauses by meaning, but they are not conjunctions.

• A conjunction joins both the meaning and the grammar. It can join two clauses directly: and, but, or, so, because, although, since.
• A conjunctive adverb joins only the meaning, not the grammar. It cannot join two clauses on its own: however, therefore, hence, thus, nevertheless, still, that's why.

So a conjunctive adverb needs a full stop or a semicolon before it.

Structure: Sentence + ( . / ; ) + conjunctive adverb + sentence

✔ He was late; therefore, he missed the bus.
✘ He was late, therefore he missed the bus. (a comma alone will not do)
✔ He was late, so he missed the bus. (so is a conjunction, so a comma works)
✔ She was tired, and yet she kept working. (one conjunction + one conjunctive adverb may sit together)
✔ Catherine said she loved Heathcliff, but she could not marry him.
✘ Catherine said she loved Heathcliff, however, she could not marry him. (use but)

The reason why … is because says the same thing twice. Write The reason is that … or simply I am confused because ….

1. No will or shall in a time or condition clause. After conjunctions that show time (when, before, after, until, as soon as, once) and conditions (if, unless), the clause usually takes the present tense even for the future.

✘ They will help the man when he will meet. (use meets)
✘ Pawan will go home when he will get a job. (use gets)
✔ I will call you after I have done my work.
✔ Turn left outside the library door and walk down the corridor until you come to the main staircase.

2. Unless and until: no extra not. Unless means if … not, and until means up to that time. A not is already hidden in unless, so a second not makes a double negative. After until a not is normally unnecessary too; it is correct only when the endpoint itself is negative (Wait until it is not raining). Until marks a time limit and unless a condition.

✘ Unless you don't work hard, you cannot clear the exam. (drop don't)
✘ Until you don't go there, you will get nothing. (drop don't)
✔ Unless you answer my question, I will not leave.
✔ Wait here until I return. You will fail unless you study.

3. If and in case. If gives a condition: do the work only when the condition is met. In case gives a precaution: do the work in advance, because something may happen later. Ask: "Is the action taken before the event or after it?" Before means in case.

✔ Open your umbrella if it rains. (open it only when it rains)
✔ Take an umbrella in case it rains. (take it now; it may rain)
✔ Let us know in case you change your mind.

4. When and while. Both join two actions. After when we can have a point in time or a long duration. After while the clause or phrase should show a long duration, usually a continuous action. While is also used for two actions happening together and for a contrast between two people.

✔ I was sleeping when he called.
✘ I was sleeping while he called. (the call is a short event)
✔ He called when I was sleeping.
✔ He called while I was sleeping.
✔ Simran was reading a book while waiting for the bus.
✘ I will definitely accept the responsibility while the time comes. (use when)

5. Other time words. Once means "as soon as something has happened": Once I pass all my exams, I'll go to London. Whenever means "at any time" and shows frequency. As soon as never takes so with it.

6. Only if. It means "only on this condition". The sentence begins with only if and then takes inversion: Only if you study, will you pass your test.

Purpose. The following structures show purpose.

The modal after so that and in order that follows the first verb: a present main verb takes can / may, and a past main verb takes could / might.

✔ He works hard so that he can pass all the exams.
✔ He worked hard so that he could pass all the exams.
✘ Radha woke up early so that she should watch the sunrise. (use could)
✘ The farmers are using HYV seeds so then they can get a better yield. (use so that)

So that and so … that. So that gives a purpose. So … that emphasises an adjective or an adverb and gives a result.

✔ He worked hard so that he could pass. (purpose)
✔ She is so beautiful that everyone falls for her. (result)

Lest means "so that something does not happen". The pattern is lest + subject + should + base form. The negative idea is inside lest, so we do not add not. Lest … will, lest … may and lest … would are wrong. In modern use should is sometimes dropped, but the base form stays.

✔ Walk fast lest you should miss the train.
✔ The aspirants worked very hard lest they should fail.
✘ Run fast lest you will miss your train. (use should)
✘ Rohan exercised lest he should not be weak. (use lest he should be weak)

For fear that carries the same sense as lest.

Warning: lest, otherwise, or else. All three warn about what will happen if something is not done.

✔ Take care lest you should fall.
✔ Take care, otherwise you may fall.
✔ Take care, or else you may fall.

Otherwise needs the right punctuation: a semicolon or a full stop before it, or a comma before it and one after it. In everyday writing a single comma before otherwise is also common (Take care, otherwise you may fall). Or else can follow a comma.

✔ Work hard; otherwise, you may not clear the exam.
✔ Work hard, or else you may not clear the exam.
✘ Do not let the opportunity slip away and you will repent. (use otherwise or or else; and gives no warning)

In exams, errors are set by using a preposition in place of a conjunction. The concept behind this is simple:

• After a conjunction a full clause (subject + verb) follows.
• After a preposition only a noun or noun phrase follows.

✘ Preeti is absent due to she is out of station. (use because she is)
✔ Preeti is absent due to her illness.
✘ We stayed in Jim's flat during he was on holiday. (use while he was)
✔ We stayed in Jim's flat during the holidays.
✘ While holidays I used to visit my village. (use During)
✘ Despite of being a big star, she's very approachable. (drop of)
✘ Though the global financial crisis, China's economy grows. (use Despite)
✔ Despite being a big star, she's very approachable.
✔ Though she is a big star, she is very approachable.

The same word, three jobs. Words such as before, after, since and until can be a preposition, a conjunction or an adverb. Look at what follows the word:

In the same way since with a point of time (since Monday) is a preposition, and since I came to Ayodhya is a conjunction.

> Even is an adverb, not a conjunction. Alex picked up the boxes even they were heavy needs even though.

1. Certainty and uncertainty. That shows certainty. If or whether shows uncertainty.

✔ I am sure that he will come.
✔ I am not sure if / whether he will come.

2. Only whether in some places.

• When or follows in the sentence, use whether; if … or not is acceptable in speech, but the exam prefers whether.
• After a preposition, use whether. If and that are not used as the object of a preposition.
• Before a *to*-infinitive, use whether.

✘ I am not certain if he will come or not. (the exam prefers whether)
✘ We don't know if he's alive or dead. (the exam prefers whether)
✘ There was an argument about if we should move to a new city. (use whether)
✘ We had a brief debate about if or not to accept the offer. (use whether)
✔ I don't know whether to stay or leave.
✔ The success of the mission depends on whether the weather cooperates.

3. Wh-words as conjunctions. What, who, where, when, why and how can join two clauses. A clause that they begin is a noun clause, and a noun clause is never a question. So what follows the wh-word is a statement: subject first, then the verb, with no do / does / did to ask the question.

✘ He asked me why was I absent.
✔ He asked me why I was absent.
✘ Can you tell me when will he come?
✔ Can you tell me when he will come?
✔ Can you tell me what my name is?
✔ My mother asked me who accompanied me to the airport. (who is the subject, so the verb follows it directly)
✔ Why he did not call her is a mystery. (the whole clause is the subject)

4. That after some verbs. After overlook, disregard, conceal, dispute a that clause usually needs the fact that. Each verb has its own pattern, so do not use the fact that as a universal repair.
✘ We overlooked that he needed to be transferred.
✔ We overlooked the fact that he needed to be transferred.

5. That: conjunction or relative pronoun? Look at the clause after that.

• Conjunction: noun + that + subject + verb. The clause is complete, and that only joins. It is a noun clause. Test: that can be replaced by the fact that.
• Relative pronoun: noun + that + verb (that = subject), or noun + that + subject + verb (that = object). The clause is incomplete and that fills the gap. It is an adjective clause. Test: that can be replaced by which / who / whom.

Another test: can who or which take the place of that? If it can, it is a relative pronoun. If it cannot, it is a conjunction. The news that she won the prize made us happy cannot take which, so that is a conjunction.