Clauses & Phrases

When a group of words is underlined and you are asked what it is, do not guess from the first word. Take three steps.

Step 1. Does the group have its own subject + finite verb? If yes, it is a clause. If no, it is a phrase (or a single word, in which case ask which part of speech it is).

Step 2. If it is a phrase, look at how it begins.

Step 3. If it is a clause, look at its work.

The two traps.

1. A non-finite verb is not a finite verb. To win the match, reading novels and sitting near the window have verbs, but none has a subject of its own, so all three are phrases.
2. A clause can hide its first word. I know he is honest is *I know that he is honest*, and he is honest is still a noun clause.

✔ I cannot understand what he wants. (a subject + verb, and it answers understand what?: noun clause)
✔ The book on the table is mine. (no verb of its own, begins with on: prepositional phrase)
✔ Whether he will agree is doubtful. (subject of the sentence: noun clause)

A dictionary does not give a word one fixed part of speech. The same word changes its part of speech as its work changes. So when one word is underlined and you are asked its part of speech, never answer from memory. Ask what the word is doing in this sentence.

How to decide. Look at what stands right after the word.

• A noun or noun phrase follows: the word is a preposition (before lunch, round the park).
• A full clause follows (subject + verb): the word is a conjunction (before he came, since you asked).
• Nothing follows, or the word stands alone: the word is an adverb (I have seen it before).
• The word stands before a noun and describes it: adjective or determiner (that book, a fast train).
• The word stands alone as the subject or object: pronoun (That is mine).

Other words that change their job in the same way are after, as, but, for, like, only, still, well and yet.

> This habit is useful in passage-based questions too. When a word from the passage is underlined, read the sentence around it, not the word alone.

Gerund and participle look the same. Both are V1 + ing. What separates them is not their form but their work.

The replacement test. In Reading novels is her hobby, replace the phrase with it: It is her hobby. The sentence still works, so reading novels is doing a noun's work: gerund phrase. In The girl sitting near the window is new, the phrase cannot be replaced by it (The girl it is new does not work). It describes the girl: participle phrase.

Infinitive phrases do three jobs.

✔ To win the match was his dream. (noun: subject)
✔ She has a book to read. (adjective: describes book)
✔ He came to see her. (adverb: tells why he came)

Choosing -ing or -ed inside a participle phrase. A participle phrase describing a noun uses V1 + ing when the noun is the doer, and V3 when the noun receives the action.

✔ tourists fascinated by the history of the place (the tourists are fascinated by it, they receive the feeling)
✘ tourists who are fascinating by the history (the tourists are not fascinating anybody)
✔ a fascinating place (the place fascinates)

Likewise rising and raising. Rise has no object, so temperatures rise and we speak of rising temperatures. Raise needs an object: raising prices.

✔ Rising temperatures in the springtime signal plants and animals to come alive.
✘ Raising temperatures in the springtime signal plants and animals to come alive.

The past participle as a plain adjective. In Stay connected, connected is a past participle (V3) working as a complement. In a broken window and a closed door, V3 stands before a noun as an adjective.

> Gerund phrase = noun's work. Participle phrase = adjective's work. The form is the same; the job is not.

Two phrases are often missed because they do not look like the usual ones.

1. The absolute phrase. It is a noun or pronoun together with a participle. The noun is the doer of the participle, and it is written inside the phrase itself, so the phrase does not depend on the subject of the main clause. The whole phrase gives the reason, time or condition for the main statement.

✔ The sun having set, we returned home. (= As the sun had set, we returned home.)
✔ The weather being fine, we went out. (= As the weather was fine, we went out.)
✔ It being a rainy day, we stayed in.
✔ Weather permitting, the match will begin at nine.

[[parse: X=The sun having set | S=we | V=returned | A=home]]

An absolute phrase is not a dangling participle. A dangling participle has no doer at all, or uses the wrong one. An absolute phrase brings its own doer along: the sun, the weather, it.

✘ Being a rainy day, we stayed in. (we cannot be a rainy day)
✔ It being a rainy day, we stayed in.

2. The appositive phrase. It is a noun phrase placed right next to another noun to give extra information about it. It is usually set off by commas and has no verb.

✔ Radhika, the topper of the batch, was given a scholarship.
✔ My cousin Ravi lives in Pune. (no commas, because it tells which cousin)

An appositive does not change the number of the verb. The verb agrees with the main noun.

✔ Radhika, the topper of the batch, was given a scholarship.
✘ Radhika, the topper of the batch, were given a scholarship.

If a verb is added (Radhika, who is the topper of the batch, …), the phrase becomes a relative clause. Then the concepts of relative clauses apply (Types 6 to 8).

> The absolute phrase needs a doer written in the phrase. The appositive phrase needs a noun next to it.

A noun clause does a noun's work: it is the subject, the object, the complement or the object of a preposition. It begins with that, whether, if or a wh-word (what, who, where, when, why, how). Four Concepts cover almost every error.

Concept 1. A noun clause is a statement, not a question. Inside the clause the subject comes first and there is no do / does / did.

✔ He did not know where the book was kept.
✘ He did not know where was the book kept.
✔ Do you have any idea where Anya is?
✘ Do you have any idea where is Anya?
✔ I don't remember exactly when I went to Shimla.
✘ I don't remember exactly when did I go to Shimla.

Concept 2. No do / does / did just because the sentence is a question. The outer sentence may be a question; the noun clause inside it is still a statement.

✔ Will you tell me who accompanied you to the airport?
✘ Will you tell me who did accompany you to the airport?

Concept 3. A noun clause as the subject takes a singular verb, however many things the clause mentions. The whole clause is one idea.

✔ That the report failed to address the root causes was surprising.
✘ That the report failed to address the root causes were surprising.
✔ Whether she wishes to relocate or continues to live here is her personal decision.

Concept 4. Do not add a second connector. That is already the link, so it cannot be joined to another opener such as As you know,.

✔ As you know, I always like to have ice-cream after dinner.
✘ As you know, that I always like to have ice-cream after dinner.

Inside the clause the verb still agrees with its own subject and keeps the correct form: the assumption that all institutions will adhere to the directive (after will, the plain V1).

[[parse: S=That the report failed to address the root causes | V=was | C=surprising]]

> A noun clause is a statement hidden inside a bigger sentence. Write it in statement order.

A relative clause is an adjective clause. It follows a noun (the antecedent) and tells us which one. The pronoun that opens it stands for that noun and also does a job inside the clause. The Pronoun chapter gave the who / whom concept; here we use it to read the clause.

Step 1. Cut the clause out and count its verbs. Mark the relative pronoun and the verb that goes with it.

Step 2. Ask what the pronoun is inside its own clause.

Concept 1. The pronoun stands for a person who is the object. In The novelist who her editor had praised …, the pronoun is the object of had praised (the editor praised the novelist), and another subject, her editor, stands between. So it is whom.

✔ The novelist whom her editor had praised was yet to submit the final chapters.
✘ The novelist who her editor had praised …

Concept 2. A preposition forces whom. With who, to who and in who are wrong.

✔ The person with whom Maya shared the flat had not paid his rent.
✘ The person with who Maya shared the flat …
✔ This is the group of leaders in whom the government has placed its trust.

Concept 3. Whose is a possessive and is followed by a noun. It never takes the before that noun and never stands without one.

✔ The boy whose sister is ill has left.
✘ The boy whose the sister is ill has left.
✔ What is the name of the Swami whose autobiography impressed you so much?
✘ … the Swami whom autobiography impressed you so much?

Concept 4. The pronoun that does the doing is who. Whom never stands right before a verb.

✔ Pradeep, who is a teacher, also works as a content writer.
✘ Pradeep, whom is a teacher …
✔ She met my cousin, whom she later married. (the object of married)
✘ She met my cousin, whose she later married.

[[parse: S=The novelist | X=whom her editor had praised | V=was yet to submit | O=the final chapters]]

> After the pronoun, a verb straight away means who. A new subject after it means whom. A noun straight after it means whose.

Once the person is settled (who / whom / whose), the next question is the relative pronoun for things, and whether the clause needs commas.

Concept 1. Defining and non-defining clauses.

✔ The book that I borrowed was interesting. (which book: defining)
✔ The fiction and non-fiction books, which I borrowed, were interesting. (extra: non-defining)
✘ The Tata group owns many industries, that are spread across the globe.
✔ The Tata group owns many industries that are spread across the globe.
✔ The Tata group owns many industries, which are spread across the globe.

That cannot follow a comma. If the comma stays, change that to which; if that stays, remove the comma.

Concept 2. Who is for people, which is for things. Never use who for a thing.

✔ The government has announced a gradual reboot of air travel, which was halted two months ago.
✘ … a gradual reboot of air travel who was halted two months ago.

Concept 3. Which can refer to a whole clause before it. Then it is written after a comma and takes a singular verb.

✔ She passed the exam, which surprised everyone.
✔ He arrived late, which annoyed the host.

Concept 4. Pronouns and prepositions with things. Whom is only for people. For things use which; in which, with which, of which.

✔ This is the book which I wanted to buy. / This is the book that I wanted to buy.
✘ This is the book whom I wanted to buy.

Concept 5. Only that after some words. After all, everything, nothing, anything, only, a superlative or both a person and a thing, that is preferred to which.

✔ It was the best film that I had seen all year.
✔ Everything that he said was true.

[[parse: S=The book | X=that I borrowed | V=was | C=interesting]]

> No comma: defining, that or which. Comma: extra information, which only.

Two last faults in relative clauses are hidden because the sentence is long.

Concept 1. The verb inside the clause agrees with the antecedent. The pronoun who / which / that has no number of its own. It takes the number of the noun it stands for, so the verb inside the clause follows that noun.

✔ Children who do not read books will never be able to receive information in any way.
✘ Children who does not read books …
✔ The residents who have never cheated are proud of it.

One of the + plural noun + who takes a plural verb, because who refers to the plural noun. The singular verb is used only when the sentence says the only one.

✔ Radhika is one of those students who work very hard.
✔ He is the only one of the boys who was punished.

Concept 2. A relative pronoun is the subject or object; do not repeat it. The pronoun already stands for the noun, so a second it, he, she or they inside the clause is an error.

✔ The report which was based on exhaustive data analysis received wide praise.
✘ The report which was based on exhaustive data analysis, it received wide praise.

The same holds after a comma. A relative clause that has been closed with a comma does not need a repeating pronoun to introduce the next verb. In the item above, the main verb received follows directly.

Concept 3. Tense stays logical inside the clause. The relative clause may have its own tense. It still has to match the time it describes.

✔ The thief who stole the purse was caught by the police.
✘ The thief who steals the purse was caught by the police.

Concept 4. A clause with who is not a substitute for a missing main verb. Check that the sentence still has its own main verb after the clause is cut out.

[[parse: S=Children | X=who do not read books | V=will never be able to receive | O=information]]

> Pronoun in the clause: find its antecedent, count it, and then check the verb. One pronoun does one job, and there is no second pronoun.

An adverb clause does an adverb's work. It tells when, where, why, for what purpose, with what result, on what condition, in spite of what or in what manner the main action happens. It begins with a subordinating conjunction. The Conjunction chapter lists the conjunctions; here are the clauses they build and the errors that hide in them.

Concept 1. One connector for one clause. Although … but and because … so are double connectors: each clause is already joined, so a second joining word is an error.

✔ Although he was feeling sick, he ate all the food.
✘ Although he was feeling sick, but he ate all the food.
✔ Because the road was blocked, we took another route.
✘ Because the road was blocked, so we took another route.

Though … yet is the one pair that formal English accepts. Even there, one connector is safer in an exam.

Concept 2. Match the connector to the sense. Although shows contrast. Because shows cause. So that shows purpose.

✔ We cannot delay the project because it is urgent.
✘ We cannot delay the project although it is urgent.

Concept 3. Purpose in the past: could / would, not should or can. So that she could watch is the natural form after a past main verb.

✔ Radha woke up early that morning so that she could watch the beautiful sunrise.
✘ … so that she should watch the beautiful sunrise.

Concept 4. Lest already means "so that … not". It takes should + V1, never a negative.

✔ Don't lose sight of your goal lest you should fail.
✘ Don't lose sight of your goal lest you shouldn't fail.

Concept 5. As if / as though takes the past subjunctive-like form. The state is imagined, so the verb is in the past (was or were).

✔ She acted as if she was the one who was hurt.
✘ She acted as if she is the one who was hurt.

Concept 6. Such … as and so … that. For comparison use such … as; for result, such … that.

✔ He is not such a clever boy as you are.
✘ He is not such a clever boy that you are.

> One clause, one connector. Then check that the connector's sense and the verb form fit.

A clause can be shortened into a phrase when its subject is the same as the subject of the main clause. The shorter form is neater and appears often in the exam. The Non-Finite chapter teaches the participle; here we look at the reduction itself and the errors it creates.

Concept 1. Same subject: drop the subject and shorten the verb.

Who / which / that + be can be dropped altogether, leaving the participle. The reduced form may be a participle phrase (waiting …, written …) or a gerund phrase after a preposition (Despite spending six years in politics, …).

Concept 2. A reduced phrase is not a main verb. Every sentence needs a finite verb. If the only verb is a participle or a gerund, the sentence is a fragment.

✘ This book giving us much information about our freedom fighters.
✔ This book gives us much information about our freedom fighters.
✔ This book, giving us much information about our freedom fighters, is widely read.

Concept 3. Keep the verb in the right voice. After the reduction, the main verb still needs the correct voice and agreement.

✔ Despite spending six years in politics, he is still regarded by many as the new kid on the block.
✘ Despite spending six years in politics, he are still regard by many …

Regarded (passive), because he does not regard; many people regard him.

Concept 4. Choose the right participle form.

An earlier action cannot use plain V1 + ing, and a later action cannot use having + V3.

✘ Qatar has extended strict quarantine rules having required travellers to isolate for up to 14 days. (the requirement is not earlier; the provisions require it now)
✔ Qatar has extended strict quarantine rules requiring travellers to isolate for up to 14 days.

Concept 5. Subject must stay the same. A reduced phrase silently borrows the subject of the main clause. If the real doer is different, do not reduce (see Type 11).

Concept 6. The main verb still agrees with its own subject. The participial opening does not change that.

✔ Having been a student activist once, a politician never forgets those days.
✘ Having been a student activist once, a politician never forget those days.

[[parse: X=Having been a student activist once | S=a politician | V=never forgets | O=those days]]

> Reduce the clause if the subject is the same, keep a finite verb in the main clause, and choose the participle by time and voice.

A modifier describes a noun. It must stand next to the noun it describes. If it stands next to the wrong noun, or no suitable noun is there at all, the sentence says something absurd or unclear.

Concept 1. A dangling modifier has no doer in the sentence. An opening participle or infinitive phrase borrows its doer from the subject of the main clause. If that subject cannot do the action, the modifier dangles.

✘ Walking down the road, a stray dog barked at Radhika. (the dog was not walking)
✔ Walking down the road, Radhika heard a stray dog barking behind her.
✘ Reaching the station, the train had already left. (the train did not reach)
✔ Reaching the station, we found that the train had already left.

Test. Ask "Who is doing the action in the opening phrase?" and look at the subject of the main clause. If they are different, correct the sentence.

Three repairs are available:

1. Change the subject so that it can do the action. Walking down the road, Radhika …
2. Turn the phrase into a clause. As Radhika was walking down the road, a stray dog barked at her.
3. Add a doer to the phrase itself, which makes it an absolute phrase (Type 4). The sun having set, we returned home.

Concept 2. A misplaced modifier is next to the wrong noun. Move it beside the noun it describes.

✘ The suddenness with which the issue escalated took not only the negotiators but also the observers by surprise who were expecting a gradual resolution process.
✔ The suddenness with which the issue escalated took by surprise not only the negotiators but also the observers who were expecting a gradual resolution process.

The clause who were expecting … describes the observers, so it belongs right after that noun.

Concept 3. Only, even, almost, just sit before the word they limit.

✘ She only eats vegetables on Sundays. (when the meaning is: she eats nothing but vegetables)
✔ She eats only vegetables on Sundays.

Concept 4. Prepositional phrases and relative clauses stay near their noun.

✘ The man was sitting in the park with a beard.
✔ The man with a beard was sitting in the park.

> A modifier has to be close to its noun. When a sentence opens with an -ing phrase, check that the subject that follows is the doer.

The Basics chapter gave the four names. The exam asks you to apply them to a given sentence, and to combine two sentences into one of a given kind. Count the clauses, then name the structure.

Step 1. Find the finite verbs and mark each clause.
Step 2. Mark which clauses are independent (can stand alone) and which are dependent (begin with a subordinator or a relative pronoun).
Step 3. Name the structure.

✔ Radhika wrote the report. (1 independent: simple)
✔ Radhika wrote the report, and her brother checked it. (2 independent: compound)
✔ Radhika wrote the report because the deadline was close. (1 independent + 1 dependent: complex)
✔ Radhika wrote the report because the deadline was close, and her brother checked it. (2 independent + 1 dependent: compound-complex)

What does not count. Phrases do not count. A simple sentence can be long and still simple.

✔ Having finished the work late at night, Radhika sent the report to the manager. (one finite verb: simple)

Combining sentences.

✔ Radhika won the prize. She is my cousin. → Radhika, who is my cousin, won the prize. (complex) / Radhika, my cousin, won the prize. (simple, with an appositive)

> A compound sentence joins equals. A complex sentence puts one idea under another. Count independent and dependent clauses separately.